Human genetic enhancement or human genetic engineering refers to human enhancement by means of a genetic modification. This could be done in order to cure diseases (gene therapy), prevent the possibility of getting a particular disease[1] (similarly to vaccines), to improve athlete performance in sporting events (gene doping), or to change physical appearance, metabolism, and even improve physical capabilities and mental faculties such as memory and intelligence.These genetic enhancements may or may not be done in such a way that the change is heritable (which has raised concerns within the scientific community).[2]
Genetic modification in order to cure genetic diseases is referred to as gene therapy. Many such gene therapies are available, made it through all phases of clinical research and are approved by the FDA. Between 1989 and December 2018, over 2,900 clinical trials were conducted, with more than half of them in phase I.[3] As of 2017, Spark Therapeutics' Luxturna (RPE65 mutation-induced blindness) and Novartis' Kymriah (Chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy) are the FDA's first approved gene therapies to enter the market. Since that time, drugs such as Novartis' Zolgensma and Alnylam's Patisiran have also received FDA approval, in addition to other companies' gene therapy drugs. Most of these approaches utilize adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) and lentiviruses for performing gene insertions, in vivo and ex vivo, respectively. ASO / siRNA approaches such as those conducted by Alnylam and Ionis Pharmaceuticals require non-viral delivery systems, and utilize alternative mechanisms for trafficking to liver cells by way of GalNAc transporters.
Some people are immunocompromised and their bodies are hence much less capable of fending off and defeating diseases (i.e. influenza, ...). In some cases this is due to genetic flaws[clarification needed] or even genetic diseases such as SCID. Some gene therapies have already been developed or are being developed to correct these genetic flaws/diseases, hereby making these people less susceptible to catching additional diseases (i.e. influenza, ...).[4]
In November 2018, Lulu and Nana were created.[5] By using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-Cas9, a gene editing technique, they disabled a gene called CCR5 in the embryos, aiming to close the protein doorway that allows HIV to enter a cell and make the subjects immune to the HIV virus.
Athletes might adopt gene therapy technologies to improve their performance.[6] Gene doping is not known to occur, but multiple gene therapies may have such effects. Kayser et al. argue that gene doping could level the playing field if all athletes receive equal access. Critics claim that any therapeutic intervention for non-therapeutic/enhancement purposes compromises the ethical foundations of medicine and sports.[7]
Other hypothetical gene therapies could include changes to physical appearance, metabolism, mental faculties such as memory and intelligence.
Some congenital disorders (such as those affecting the muscoskeletal system) may affect physical appearance, and in some cases may also cause physical discomfort. Modifying the genes causing these congenital diseases (on those diagnosed to have mutations of the gene known to cause these diseases) may prevent this.
Also changes in the mystatin gene[8] may alter appearance.
Behavior may also be modified by genetic intervention.[9] Some people may be aggressive, selfish, ... and may not be able to function well in society.[clarification needed] There is currently research ongoing on genes that are or may be (in part) responsible for selfishness (i.e. ruthlessness gene, aggression (i.e. warrior gene), altruism (i.e. OXTR, CD38, COMT, DRD4, DRD5, IGF2, GABRB2[10])
There is some research going on on the hypothetical treatment of psychiatric disorders by means of gene therapy. It is assumed that, with gene-transfer techniques, it is possible (in experimental settings using animal models) to alter CNS gene expression and thereby the intrinsic generation of molecules involved in neural plasticity and neural regeneration, and thereby modifying ultimately behaviour.[11]
In recent years, it was possible to modify ethanol intake in animal models. Specifically, this was done by targeting the expression of the aldehyde dehydrogenase gene (ALDH2), lead to a significantly altered alcohol-drinking behaviour.[12] Reduction of p11, a serotonin receptor binding protein, in the nucleus accumbens led to depression-like behaviour in rodents, while restoration of the p11 gene expression in this anatomical area reversed this behaviour.[13]
Recently, it was also shown that the gene transfer of CBP (CREB (c-AMP response element binding protein) binding protein) improves cognitive deficits in an animal model of Alzheimers dementia via increasing the expression of BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor).[14] The same authors were also able to show in this study that accumulation of amyloid- (A) interfered with CREB activity which is physiologically involved in memory formation.
In another study, it was shown that A deposition and plaque formation can be reduced by sustained expression of the neprilysin (an endopeptidase) gene which also led to improvements on the behavioural (i.e. cognitive) level.[15]
Similarly, the intracerebral gene transfer of ECE (endothelin-converting enzyme) via a virus vector stereotactically injected in the right anterior cortex and hippocampus, has also shown to reduce A deposits in a transgenic mouse model of Alzeimers dementia.[16]
There is also research going on on genoeconomics, a protoscience that is based on the idea that a person's financial behavior could be traced to their DNA and that genes are related to economic behavior. As of 2015, the results have been inconclusive. Some minor correlations have been identified.[17][18]
George Church has compiled a list of potential genetic modifications based on scientific studies for possibly advantageous traits such as less need for sleep, cognition-related changes that protect against Alzheimer's disease, disease resistances, higher lean muscle mass and enhanced learning abilities along with some of the associated studies and potential negative effects.[19][20]
Link:
Human genetic enhancement - Wikipedia
- First cow to produce human insulin in its milk created in Brazil - Cosmos - March 18th, 2024
- Engineering the Microbiome: CRISPR Leads the Way - The Scientist - March 18th, 2024
- The de-extinction process to bring woolly mammoths back to life - The Week - March 18th, 2024
- CRISPR gene editing applications are expanding dramatically in agriculture. Here are the latest advances - Genetic Literacy Project - March 18th, 2024
- Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) - National Human Genome Research Institute - March 18th, 2024
- Colossal Genetic Breakthrough Could Be the Key to Reviving Wooly Mammoths - Syfy - March 18th, 2024
- Breaking: Crop gene editing greenlighted by European Parliament. Fight over labeling looms as measure moves to the ... - Genetic Literacy Project - February 10th, 2024
- GMOs on the spotlight in East Africa again - The Citizen - February 10th, 2024
- Blog: Let's Not Ignore the Science in the Fight Against Malaria - chimpreports.com - February 10th, 2024
- Genetic engineering techniques - Wikipedia - January 9th, 2024
- 20.3: Genetic Engineering - Biology LibreTexts - January 9th, 2024
- Genetic Modification Techniques and Applications - Technology Networks - January 9th, 2024
- Transformation-associated recombination (TAR) cloning and its applications - EurekAlert - January 9th, 2024
- Are GMOs Safe? The Benefits of Science-Enhanced Foods | TIME - TIME - January 9th, 2024
- Here's the skinny on fast-emerging genetic engineering tools that are rapidly improving global farming - Genetic Literacy Project - January 9th, 2024
- What Fruit Looked Like 100 Years Ago, Before Genetic Modification - Green Matters - January 9th, 2024
- APHIS Reopens Comment Period on Proposed Additional Exemptions for Plants Modified or Produced Through Genetic Engineering - The National Law Review - January 9th, 2024
- Restriction Enzyme Market is set to Reach US$ 647.41 million at a CAGR of 5.7% from the forecast period 2023 to ... - GlobeNewswire - January 9th, 2024
- Genetic engineering - DNA Modification, Cloning, Gene Splicing - December 13th, 2023
- Star Trek: Julian Bashir's Tale of Genetic Engineering and the Complexity of Parental Acceptance - GameRant - December 13th, 2023
- How to Improve Livestock Health, and Cut - Breakthrough Institute - December 13th, 2023
- Opinion | The Genetically-Engineered Tree That Never Was - Common Dreams - December 13th, 2023
- Genome Editing Market Size and Share to Surpass USD 14.5 billion by 2035 | Roots Analysis - Yahoo Finance - December 13th, 2023
- Dallas-Based Colossal Biosciences Aims to De-Extinct the Woolly Mammoth - The Texan - December 13th, 2023
- Revolutionizing probiotic therapy: The emergence of CRISPR-Cas engineered strains - Medical Xpress - December 13th, 2023
- Genetically engineered cell therapies with mRNA lipid nanoparticles for transferrable platelets - Phys.org - December 13th, 2023
- 'Perhaps GMOs are closer to natural processes than we think': How genetic modification mimics natural evolution of ... - Genetic Literacy Project - December 13th, 2023
- Advancements in Genome Editing and CRISPR-Cas9 Technology - Medriva - December 13th, 2023
- Gene Therapy: Unlocking Innovations in Cancer Treatment, Detection, and Drug Development - Securities.io - December 13th, 2023
- Mayo Clinic Research on Genetically Engineered Virus and CAR-T Cell Therapy for Liver Cancer - Medriva - December 13th, 2023
- Global Gene Editing Market Poised for Significant Growth, Projected to Reach $14.28 Billion by 2027 - EIN News - December 13th, 2023
- Principles of Genetic Engineering - PMC - National Center for ... - May 17th, 2023
- Quitting: A Life Strategy: The Myth of Perseveranceand How the New Science of Giving Up Can Set You Free - Next Big Idea Club Magazine - May 17th, 2023
- 18 Human Genetic Engineering - Clemson University - March 29th, 2023
- Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering - Benefits and Risks - March 29th, 2023
- How artificial skin is made and its uses, from treating burns to skin cancer - South China Morning Post - March 29th, 2023
- Genetic Engineering - Meaning, Applications, Advantages and Challenges ... - March 13th, 2023
- Revolutionary Specialty Enzymes Transform Industries, Projected to Reach $2.2 Billion by 2031 - Billion-Dollar - EIN News - March 5th, 2023
- Explained: What is genome editing technology and how is it different from GM technology? - The Indian Express - April 2nd, 2022
- Scribe Therapeutics to Participate in Upcoming Goldman Sachs The New Guard: Privates Leading the Disruption in Healthcare Investor Conference - Yahoo... - April 2nd, 2022
- San Antonio Zoo In Discussions on Woolly Mammoth Project - iHeart - April 2nd, 2022
- Xenotransplantation trials will require adjusting expectations, experts say - STAT - April 2nd, 2022
- 5 Interesting Startup Deals You May Have Missed In March: Restoring The Woolly Mammoth, Faux Seafood And Lots Of Bees - Crunchbase News - April 2nd, 2022
- Synlogic to Present Data on Phenylketonuria and Homocystinuria Programs at the Society for ... - KULR-TV - April 2nd, 2022
- The Bay Area food tech industry is creating more than vegan burgers. Heres whats next - San Francisco Chronicle - April 2nd, 2022
- Student Startup Teams to Compete For $110000 Cash Prize Pool in U of A's Heartland Challenge - University of Arkansas Newswire - April 2nd, 2022
- Should we test for differences in allergen content between varieties of crops and animal species? - Open Access Government - April 2nd, 2022
- Genetic Engineering - Courses, Subjects, Eligibility ... - December 22nd, 2021
- Scientists Used CRISPR Gene Editing to Choose the Sex of Mouse Pups - Singularity Hub - December 22nd, 2021
- Report calls for broad public deliberation on releasing gene-edited species in the wild - EurekAlert - December 22nd, 2021
- RNA and DNA Extraction Kit Market Study | Know the Post-Pandemic Scenario of the Industry - BioSpace - December 22nd, 2021
- Opinion: Allow Golden Rice to save lives - pnas.org - December 22nd, 2021
- It's time for an alliance of democracies | TheHill - The Hill - December 22nd, 2021
- Aridis Pharmaceuticals Announces a Pan-Coronavirus Monoclonal Antibody Cocktail That Retains Effectiveness Against the Omicron variant, other COVID-19... - December 22nd, 2021
- 2021: when the link between the climate and biodiversity crises became clear - The Guardian - December 22nd, 2021
- Wuhan lab leak now the most likely cause of Covid pandemic and the truth WILL come out, experts tell MPs... - The US Sun - December 22nd, 2021
- Biotech ETFs That Outperformed Last Week - Yahoo Finance - December 22nd, 2021
- Viewpoint: Part 1 Opposition stirred by anti-GMO advocacy group propaganda fading in the developing world, as more countries embrace crop... - October 5th, 2021
- Amyris Partners with Inscripta to Enhance Development of Sustainable Ingredients Using the Onyx Genome Engineering Platform - WWNY - October 5th, 2021
- Kingdom Supercultures raises $25m to expand Non GMO suite of microbes to unlock new flavors, textures, and functionalities in food & beverage -... - October 5th, 2021
- Fact check: Genetically engineering your salad with the COVID-19 vaccines? We're not there yet. - USA TODAY - October 5th, 2021
- Making the Transition from an Academic to a Biobusiness Entrepreneur - Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News - October 5th, 2021
- Is The New York Times Finally 'Learning To Love GMOS'? - American Council on Science and Health - October 5th, 2021
- Gene editing, joke theft and manifesting - The Week UK - October 5th, 2021
- Opinion: Saving lives through real social justice - Agri-Pulse - October 5th, 2021
- What is biohacking? - News Anyway - October 5th, 2021
- Science, business and the humanities: CP Snow's 'Two Cultures' sixty years on - TheArticle - October 5th, 2021
- Probiotic Yeast Engineered To Produce Beta-Carotene - Technology Networks - April 17th, 2021
- In the US, Imminent Release of Genetically Modified Mosquitoes To Fight Dengue - The Wire Science - April 17th, 2021
- CRISPRoff: A New Addition to the CRISPR Toolbox - Technology Networks - April 17th, 2021
- A Massive New Gene Editing Project Is Out to Crush Alzheimer's - Singularity Hub - April 17th, 2021
- Grammar of the Genome: Reading the Influence of DNA on Disease - Baylor University - April 17th, 2021
- We cannot let China set the standards for 21st century technologies | TheHill - The Hill - April 17th, 2021
- First GMO Mosquitoes to Be Released in the Florida Keys - Singularity Hub - April 17th, 2021
- Novavax to Participate in University of Oxford Com-COV2 Study Comparing Mixed COVID-19 Vaccine Combinations - BioSpace - April 17th, 2021
- AmunBio and NorthShore University to Advance Cancer Immunotherapy with Engineered Oncolytic Viruses - OncoZine - April 17th, 2021
- StrideBio Announces a Multi-technology License and Master SRA with Duke University to Advance Next-generation Gene Therapies - BioSpace - April 17th, 2021
- ThermoGenesis : The History of Cell and Gene Therapy - marketscreener.com - April 17th, 2021
- EU's refusal to permit GMO crops led to millions of tonnes of additional CO2, scientists reveal - Alliance for Science - Alliance for Science - February 14th, 2021
- New species of fly named after Singanallur Tank - The Hindu - February 14th, 2021