StemCell Therapy

01/14/2016

research article

Sensory neuron diversity is required for organisms to decipher complex environmental cues. Qingyun Li and colleagues highlight the importance of the early prepatterning gene regulatory network as a modulator ofsensory organ precursorand terminally differentiated olfactory receptor neurondiversity in Drosophila.

01/20/2016

research article

Telomeres shorten with each cell division and telomere dysfunction is a recognized hallmark of aging. Madalena Carneiro and colleagues show that telomere shortening and DNA damage in key tissues triggers not only local dysfunction but also anticipates the onset of age-associated diseases in other tissues, including cancer.

01/20/2016

research article

The thymic medulla is known to be an essential site for the deletion of auto-reactive T cells. Rumi Satoh and colleagues show thatStat3 meditated signal via EGF-R is required for the postnatal development of thymic medullary regions.

01/21/2016

Viewpoints

Stephanie Dyke and colleagues examine the variation in data use conditions that are based on consent provisions for genomics datasets in research and clinical settings.

Image credit: Duncan Hull, Flickr, CC BY

Image credit: K. Adam Bohnert and Kathleen Gould

Image credit: Hey Paul Studios, Flickr, CC BY

12/23/2015

review

Albino Bacolla and colleagues discuss recent advances on three-stranded (triplex) nucleic acids, with an emphasis on DNARNA and RNARNA interactions.

Image credit: mira66, Flickr, CC BY

More here:
PLOS Genetics: A Peer-Reviewed Open-Access Journal

Gene therapy is an experimental treatment that involves inserting genetic material into your cells to give them a new function or restore a missing function, as cancer may be caused by damaged or missing genes, also known as gene mutations. Although gene therapy may be one way to overcome these changes and treat or prevent cancer, it is currently only available through clinical trials.

Cancer is caused by changes in our genes. Genes are inherited from our parents, and determine our traits and characteristics. They are made of biological molecules called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA and RNA are responsible for making proteins, which have many functions, such as helping a cell to maintain its shape or controlling its growth and division. Changes or mutations in genes can affect the proteins and may sometimes lead to diseases, such as cancer.

Gene therapy is designed to modify cancer cells at the molecular level and replace a missing or bad gene with a healthy one. The new gene is delivered to the target cell via a vector, which is usually an inactive virus or liposome, a tiny fat bubble.

Gene therapy can be done in two ways: outside (ex vivo) or inside (in vivo) your body. Ex-vivo techniques involve taking some of the cancer cells out of your body, injecting them with good genes, and then putting them back into your body. The in-vivo process requires that good genes be put directly into a tumor, which may be difficult depending on its location or if the cancer has spread. Scientists generally use two types of cells in gene therapy the tumor cells themselves and immune system cells that attack the tumors.

Researchers from Moores Cancer Center at UC San Diego Health System are studying several gene therapy techniques for breast cancer, melanoma, leukemia and pancreatic cancer.

For example, they have been integrally involved in the development of Herceptin, a targeted therapy that is proving to be effective in curing localized human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2) breast cancer. HER2 controls how cells grow, divide and repair themselves.

Researchers have also been injecting a modified herpes virus into melanoma tumors, with the intention of improving the bodys immune defenses against the disease.

Gene therapy called TNFerade Biologic involves a DNA carrier containing the gene for tumor necrosis factor-alpha, an immune system protein with potent and well-documented anti-cancer effects. TNFerade is being studied in combination with radiation therapy for first-time treatment of inoperable pancreatic cancer.

TNFerade and the herpes strategies use gene therapy to enhance the killing effect of the primary mechanism radiation in TNFerade and viral induced cell lysis, or splitting, in the herpes virus.

When will gene therapy be available? Gene therapy is only available as a cancer treatment through clinical trials.

Are there any risks associated with gene therapy clinical trials? Yes. Viral vectors might infect healthy cells as well as cancer cells, a new gene might be inserted in the wrong location in the DNA, or the transferred genes could be overexpressed and produce too much of the missing protein, causing harm. All risks for any procedure should be discussed with your doctor.

See original here:
Gene Therapy - Cancer Treatments - Moores Cancer Center ...

Human eyesight is a sense which enables animals to perceive the light, different colors, shapes and it serves to the general perception of the environment. It is oriented mainly towards the perception of contrast and thus even contours and it significantly helps with orientation in space. For a human being the eyesight is the most important sense and that is mainly because almost 80% of information from our surroundings is perceived through it.

The human eye (oculus) is the organ of eyesight and is composed of the eye bulb and additional organs. Photosensitive layer is called the retina and contains photoreceptors, highly specialized photosensitive cells, rods and cones thanks to which the image is created. These cells are embedded in the pigmented epithelium which supplies them with nourishment and light isolation.

Vision itself, individual perception of the light, is based on the sensitivity of the eyesight pigments (e.g. rhodopsin) to the light. Under the influence of light the sight pigments decompose and that triggers the cascade chemical reactions which lead to the change of signal into electric potential, impulse, that carries information to the optical centers of the brain.

For the eyesight perception to be perfect we need also parts of the human eye that form its optical system (cornea, vitreous humor, lens, vitreous body) that collects the rays in the way that their focus is on the retina. A defect of optical system causes inability to create a sharp image on the retina and it leads to refractive errors (short-sightedness, long-sightedness, astigmatism).

Human eye equity is the ability to differentiate between two points in space. It depends on the ability of the optical apparatus to concentrate rays on the retina but also depends on the transparency of the human eye, intensity of light and on density and integration of photoreceptors in the given place on the retina.

Ultraviolet rays are the component of sunlight and is divided into UV-A and UV-B and UV-C radiation. UVA rays tan skin and is due to premature skin aging. UV-B rays cause sunburn and are often associated with skin cancer and eye problems such as cataracts. UV-C rays are most dangerous. There are, fortunately, blocked by ozone layer and do not get to the earth's surface.

The color vision is a very complicated psychophysical process during which human eye distinguishes different colors. From the physical point of view the color does not exist and it is only a visual perception which is conditioned by the wavelength of the light. The certain part of the spectrum reflects from different objects, then it falls on the eye where it causes the irritation of the light sensitive elements which react to color the cones. For its realization, it is necessary to have a correct and undisturbed function of the eyesight and the human eye as the receiving organ, the optical path as the transmitting system and the centers of the brain thanks to which we distinguish and thus they are the analyzer of the perception.

When driving a motor vehicle a driver has to continuously monitor not only what is happening on the road but also the data on the panel board. The tilting of his head (in average around 30 degrees) leads to reduction of the sharpness of the image of events happening on the road which is caused by the movement of the eyes. When looking at the speedometer the movement of the eyes exceeds the target by 5 degrees in average and it is immediately balanced with the subsequent movement of the eyes.

If you have uneasiness and it seems to you, that your sight worsen and feeling pain in eyes, you should visit an ophthalmologist. Today, good vision is very important and sight problems should not be ignored, but solved.

Accommodation of the eye is the ability of the human eye to see sharply all objects which are located at various distances in front of the eye depending on the changes of massiveness of the optical system of the eye. The mechanism of eye accommodation is not the same for all animals. For example fish accommodates through the change of position of the lens, some types of birds accommodate through the increase of curvature of the cornea and protraction of the human eye. As far as humans are concerned accommodation is caused by the increased curvature of anterior area of the eye lens while at the same time its thickness also changes. Accommodation is usually the same on both eyes.

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Eyesight and vision - About-Vision.com

Most Common Adult Vision Problems Most Common Childhood Vision Problems Blurred vision (refractive errors)

These conditions affect the shape of the eye and, in turn, how the eye sees. They can be corrected by eyeglasses, contact lenses, and in some cases surgery.

Strabismus occurs when the eyes do not line up or they are crossed. One eye, however, usually remains straight at any given time. Common forms of strabismus include:

If detected early in life, strabismus can be treated and even reversed.

If left untreated strabismus can cause amblyopia.

Amblyopia often called lazy eye is a problem that is common in children.

Amblyopia is a result of the brain and the eyes not working together. The brain ignores visual information from one eye, which causes problems with vision development.

Treatment for amblyopia works well if the condition is found early. If untreated, amblyopia causes permanent vision loss.

All people with diabetes, both type 1 and type 2, are at risk for DR. It is caused by damage to blood vessels in the back of the eye (retina). The longer someone has diabetes, the more likely he or she will get DR.

People with this condition may not notice any changes to their vision until the damage to the eyes is severe. This is why it is so important for people with diabetes to have a comprehensive eye exam every year.

There are four stages of DR. During the first three stages of DR, treatment is usually not needed. To prevent progression of diabetic retinopathy, people with diabetes should control their levels of blood sugar, blood pressure, and blood cholesterol. For the fourth stage of DR, called proliferative retinopathy, there are treatments that reduce vision loss, but are not a cure for DR.

Warning signs of diabetic retinopathy includes blurred vision, gradual vision loss, floaters, shadows or missing areas of vision, and difficulty seeing at nighttime.

People with diabetes are at greater risk for cataract and glaucoma as well.

Photos courtesy of the National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

AMD is a disease that blurs the sharp, central vision needed to see straight-ahead. It affects the part of the eye called the macula that is found in the center of the retina.The macula lets a person see fine detail and is needed for things like reading and driving.

The more common dry form of AMD can be treated in the early stages to delay vision loss and possibly prevent the disease from progressing to the advanced stage. Taking certain vitamins and minerals may reduce the risk of developing advanced AMD.

The less common wet form of AMD may respond to treatment, if diagnosed and treated early.

Photos courtesy of the National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

There are different types of glaucoma, but all of them cause vision loss by damaging the optic nerve. Glaucoma is called the sneak thief of sight because people dont usually notice a problem until some vision is lost.

The most common type of glaucoma happens because of slowly increasing fluid pressure inside the eyes.

Vision loss from glaucoma cannot be corrected. But if it is found early, vision loss can be slowed or stopped. A comprehensive eye exam is important so glaucoma can be found early.

Photos courtesy of the National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

A cataract is a clouding of the lens of the eye. It often leads to poor vision at night, especially while driving, due to glare from bright lights.

Cataracts are most common in older people, but can also occur in young adults and children.

Cataract treatment is very successful and widely available.

Photos courtesy of the National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health

See original here:
Types of Vision Problems - Department of Health

In 2012, when Tyler Millard wrote the song Alivenow available on iTunes, with proceeds going to the Foundation Fighting Blindnesshe was having a rough time. Since being diagnosed with retinitis pigmentosa (RP) seven years earlier, hed lost enough eyesight to have to give up his plans to teach math. Hed also taken up the guitar and was singing and songwriting, although the gigs were few and far between. Continue Reading

One of the biggest challenges in overcoming rare retinal diseases is, well, that theyre rare. Theres limited information about the conditions in humans, making it difficult for researchers to understand why they cause blindness and develop vision-saving treatments. Continue Reading

The Foundation Fighting Blindness scientists, donors and volunteers made 2015 an outstanding year in our fight against blindness. As I tabulated the years top 10 research advancesall made possible through FFB fundingI realized that eight are for clinical trials of emerging therapies that are launching or underway. Continue Reading

Its holiday time, the giving season, when people not only buy gifts for family, friends and co-workers, but also donate to worthy causesof which there are many. But, if youll permit me, Id like to make a pitch for the Foundation Fighting Blindness (FFB), which happens to be offering a Holiday Board Match, meaning every donation is doubled. Continue Reading

If youre a young or middle-aged adult who enjoys being outside in the bright sunshine, youre probably not thinking about the risk for going blind from age-related macular degeneration (AMD). But according to a new study published in the journal Retina, you should be. Continue Reading

Were approaching a critical milestone in the fight against blinding retinal diseases, and it has the potential to tremendously boost and accelerate the advancement of virtually all gene therapies in development for dozens of inherited retinal diseases.

Sometime in 2016, Spark Therapeutics will request marketing approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for its landmark gene therapy for retinal conditions caused by mutations in the gene RPE65, namely certain forms of Leber congenital amaurosis and retinitis pigmentosa. Continue Reading

Gordon Gund, whos held in extremely high esteem by people inside and outside the Foundation Fighting Blindness (FFB), has been completely blind for decades. He lost his eyesight to a disease called retinitis pigmentosa in his thirties. Not that it slowed him down much. Among other accomplishments, hes been a financier, venture capitalist, sports-team owner and sculptor. And, of course, hes a co-founder of FFB and its chairman of the board. Continue Reading

I am delighted to welcome Valerie Navy-Daniels to the Foundation Fighting Blindness family. As our new chief development officer, she is overseeing all of our fundraising programs including events, major gifts and membership as well as communications and marketing. As many of you know, most of our research is funded by these fundraising programs, so her role is critical to the success of our mission of saving and restoring vision. Continue Reading

Many people with retinal conditions such as retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and age-related macular degeneration dont think they can donate their eyes after theyve passed away. They cant imagine anyone would want eyes that didnt work well. But in reality, affected eyes are in big demand. Continue Reading

X-linked retinitis pigmentosa (XLRP) is an inherited retinal disease causing significant vision loss, sometimes complete blindness, in males. Females are often considered to be unaffected carriers of the condition, with a 50 percent chance of passing XLRP to their sons. Continue Reading

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Eye on the Cure - Blog of the Foundation Fighting Blindness

Inattentional blindness is an inability to perceive something that is within one's direct perceptual field because one is attending to something else. The term was coined by psychologists Arien Mack and Irvin Rock, who identified the phenomenon while studying the relationship of attention to perception. They were able to show that, under a number of different conditions, if subjects were not attending to a visual stimulus but were attending to something else in the visual field, a significant percentage of the subjects were "blind" to something that was right before their eyes.

Because this inability to perceive, this sighted blindness, seemed to be caused by the fact that subjects were not attending to the stimulus but instead were attending to something else ... we labeled this phenomenon inattentional blindness (IB).*

Mack and Rock go on to argue that, in their view, "there is no conscious perception without attention."

Others, such as U. Neisser, D. Simons, and C. Chabris, have replicated and extended the work of Mack and Rock with experiments that have subjects attending to a specific task while watching a film, such as counting how many times a basketball is passed from one team member to another, while someone walks through the scene carrying an umbrella or wearing a gorilla suit. A surprisingly large percentage of subjects do not perceive something as obvious as a person in a gorilla suit moving through the scene they are observing, if they are attending to something else in their visual field. (Several examples of these experiments can be viewed on the Simons Lab page of the University of Illinois.)

Inattentional blindness may explain, for example, how a pilot with an interest in crop circles could fly right over one without even noticing it. The pilot had flown to see a recently discovered crop circle near Stonehenge. After visiting the site, he flew back to the airport to refuel before setting off on a trip that took him back over the site he had just visited. On the return flight he noticed another crop circle near the one he had visited earlier in the day and swears that the new circle was not there just forty-five minutes earlier. The new circle is very elaborate and could not have been produced by human hoaxers in such a short time. He concludes that some mysterious force must have been at work. Perhaps, but it seems more likely that the pilot experienced inattentional blindness when he was flying to the airport. He was focused on other tasks when he flew over the site and didnt notice what was right beneath him all the time. (See "Crop Circles - Quest for Truth.")

Research by Chabris and Simons indicates that inattentional blindness is a "necessary, if unfortunate, by-product of the normal operation of attention and perception" (2010, p. 38). They point out that even radiologists, who are highly trained experts at detecting visual signs of medical problems, "can still miss subtle problems when they 'read' medical images." This may explain why my dentist didn't see a crack in one of my teeth on an x-ray until I started to complain about the pain in a particular area. To eliminate inattentional blindness, we'd have to eliminate focused attention. That would not be a good idea. Even worse would be the condition of being able to attend to everything in our sensory field at once. It would drive us mad.

Research also shows that training people to improve their attention abilities may do nothing to help them detect unexpected objects. "If an object is truly unexpected, people are unlikely to notice it no matter how good (or bad) they are at focusing attention" (Chabris and Simons: 2010, p. 32). Remember this the next time you're at the airport watching the transportation security screener do his or her job. It should not be surprising to find that these folks miss a lot of contraband planted by their bosses to test them. You might also remember this: there is no scientific evidence to support the belief that driving while talking on a hands-free phone is safer than driving while holding a cell to your ear. Worse, both have about the same effect as driving under the influence of alcohol (Chabris and Simons: 2010, pp. 22-26).

See also change blindness, confabulation, and my review of The Invisible Gorilla.

further reading

books and articles

Chabris, Christopher and Daniel Simons. 2010. The Invisible Gorilla: And Other Ways Our Intuitions Deceive Us. Crown.

Simons, Daniel J. and Christopher F. Chabris. (1999). "Gorillas in our midst: sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic events." Perception, 1999, volume 28, pages 1059-1074.

Mack, Arien and Irvin Rock. (2000). Inattentional Blindness. MIT Press.

websites

The Invisible Gorilla blog

Simons Lab (teachers may be interested in purchasing the DVD the VCL sells)

Inattentional Blindness - An Overview by Arien Mack & Irvin Rock

David Chalmers's list of papers on change blindness and inattentional blindness

The Choice Blindness lab

news

AAA: Voice-to-text devices worse driver distraction than cell phones An in-depth scientific study from AAA finds that using voice-to-text electronic devices is a far greater distraction for drivers than talking on cell phones, even if they are hands free.

Why Even Radiologists Can Miss A Gorilla Hiding In Plain Sight by Alix Spiegel - 83 percent of the radiologists didn't see the gorilla in the X-ray.

Study reveals how memory load leaves us blind to new visual information "The new results reveal that our visual field does not need to be cluttered with other objects to cause [inattentional blindness] and that focusing on remembering something we have just seen is enough to make us unaware of things that happen around us."

gorillas, working memory, and the media by Daniel Simons The news media doesn't get it quite right about a new study from the University of Utah. Typical is this Eureka alert:

University of Utah psychologists have learned why many people experience "inattention blindness" the phenomenon that leaves drivers on cell phones prone to traffic accidents and makes a gorilla invisible to viewers of a famous video. The answer: People who fail to see something right in front of them while they are focusing on something else have lower "working memory capacity" a measure of "attentional control," or the ability to focus attention when and where needed, and on more than one thing at a time.

"The media is reacting to the finding that, under some conditions, differences in working memory capacity predict noticing of an unexpected gorilla. They over-generalize the finding to suggest that people who are high in working memory capacity are immune to inattentional blindness....Any scientist reading the journal article would recognize that the correlation between working memory and noticing is imperfect and would separate speculative conclusions from definitive results. Unless the press release makes those limitations explicit, the media will not either. Unless the press release explicitly identifies the limited scope and imperfect correlation and flags speculation as such, an untrained reader (or headline writer) will naturally infer that the result and the speculation are one and the same. In this case, they will infer that working memory differences explain inattentional blindness in its entirety. By not reining in the speculation, the release suggests that the working memory is the primary (if not the only) reason that some people notice and some people miss unexpected objects."

Ghost busters, parapsychology, and the first study of inattentional blindness "More than 50 years ago, Tony Cornell, a parapsychology researcher, decided to test how people would react upon seeing him dressed as a ghost. Would they experience him as a "real" ghost or as something more mundane?....Each night, Cornell or his assistants dressed in a white sheet and strolled down a path, making various hand gestures before shedding the sheet 4.5 minutes later. Other assistants observed how many people were "in a position to observe the apparition." His finding: "although it was estimated that some 70-80 persons were in a position to observe the apparition, not one was seen to give it a second glance or to react in any way." That's true even though a number of cows apparently followed the ghost around."Last updated 14-Jan-2014

More here:
inattentional blindness (aka inattention blindness)- The ...

Medical Editor:

Catherine Burt Driver, MD, is board certified in internal medicine and rheumatology by the American Board of Internal Medicine. Dr. Driver is a member of the American College of Rheumatology. She currently is in active practice in the field of rheumatology in Mission Viejo, Calif., where she is a partner in Mission Internal Medical Group.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease that causes chronic inflammation of the joints. Autoimmune diseases are illnesses that occur when the body's tissues are mistakenly attacked by their own immune system. The immune system contains a complex organization of cells and antibodies designed normally to "seek and destroy" invaders of the body, particularly infections. Patients with autoimmune diseases have antibodies and immune cells in their blood that target their own body tissues, where they can be associated with inflammation. While inflammation of the tissue around the joints and inflammatory arthritis are characteristic features of rheumatoid arthritis, the disease can also cause inflammation and injury in other organs in the body. Because it can affect multiple other organs of the body, rheumatoid arthritis is referred to as a systemic illness and is sometimes called rheumatoid disease. Rheumatoid arthritis that begins in people under 16 years of age is referred to as juvenile idiopathic arthritis (formerly juvenile rheumatoid arthritis).

While rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic illness, meaning it can last for years, patients may experience long periods without symptoms. However, rheumatoid arthritis is typically a progressive illness that has the potential to cause significant joint destruction and functional disability.

A joint is where two bones meet to allow movement of body parts. Arthritis means joint inflammation. The joint inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis causes swelling, pain, stiffness, and redness in the joints. The inflammation of rheumatoid disease can also occur in tissues around the joints, such as the tendons, ligaments, and muscles.

In some people with rheumatoid arthritis, chronic inflammation leads to the destruction of the cartilage, bone, and ligaments, causing deformity of the joints. Damage to the joints can occur early in the disease and be progressive. Moreover, studies have shown that the progressive damage to the joints does not necessarily correlate with the degree of pain, stiffness, or swelling present in the joints.

Rheumatoid arthritis is a common rheumatic disease, affecting approximately 1.3 million people in the United States, according to current census data. The disease is three times more common in women as in men. It afflicts people of all races equally. The disease can begin at any age and even affects children (juvenile idiopathic arthritis), but it most often starts after 40 years of age and before 60 years of age. Though uncommon, in some families, multiple members can be affected, suggesting a genetic basis for the disorder.

Medically Reviewed by a Doctor on 11/12/2015

Rheumatoid Arthritis - Early Symptoms Question: What were your symptoms at the onset of your rheumatoid arthritis?

Rheumatoid Arthritis - Treatments Question: What treatments have been effective for your rheumatoid arthritis?

Rheumatoid Arthritis - Experience Question: Please describe your experience with rheumatoid arthritis.

Rheumatoid Arthritis - Prognosis Question: What's the prognosis for your rheumatoid arthritis?

Rheumatoid Arthritis - Diet Question: Discuss the diet or other lifestyle changes you've made to relieve symptoms of RA.

Rheumatoid Arthritis - Diagnosis Question: What led to your rheumatoid arthritis diagnosis?

Medical Author:

Dr. Shiel received a Bachelor of Science degree with honors from the University of Notre Dame. There he was involved in research in radiation biology and received the Huisking Scholarship. After graduating from St. Louis University School of Medicine, he completed his Internal Medicine residency and Rheumatology fellowship at the University of California, Irvine. He is board-certified in Internal Medicine and Rheumatology.

Medical Editor:

Melissa Conrad Stppler, MD, is a U.S. board-certified Anatomic Pathologist with subspecialty training in the fields of Experimental and Molecular Pathology. Dr. Stppler's educational background includes a BA with Highest Distinction from the University of Virginia and an MD from the University of North Carolina. She completed residency training in Anatomic Pathology at Georgetown University followed by subspecialty fellowship training in molecular diagnostics and experimental pathology.

While early symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis can actually be mimicked by other diseases, the symptoms are very characteristic of rheumatoid disease. Rheumatoid arthritis symptoms and signs include the following:

Continued here:
Rheumatoid Arthritis Symptoms, Treatment, Diet, Medication

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Prognosis for Bone to Bone Contact in Knee

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Compression Sleeves for Arthritis Pain

A compression sleeve can be used to alleviate the pain of arthritis as well as bursitis and tendinitis by providing compression (firmness) and warmth to the affected site. Read More

What Are the Causes of Knee Pain at Night?

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Understanding the Blood Test Numbers for Rheumatoid Arthritis

Unlike other forms of arthritis, there is a specific blood test available to check for rheumatoid arthritis. This test, combined with arthritic pain on both sides of the body, indicates Read More

How to Treat Arthritis Pain With Neurontin or Gabapentin

Gabapentin, also known by the brand name Neurontin, has been clinically found to be effective in the treatment of chronic pain, including arthritis pain. Originally designed to treat seizures, researchers Read More

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If you ever spend time with people who have achy, arthritic joints, you may have heard their weather forecasts based on what joints hurt in their bodies. Is there any Read More

How to Cure Severe Tendonitis

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How to Avoid Foods that Aggravate Gout

Gout, a form of inflammatory arthritis, occurs when uric acid, a waste product produced by the body, forms crystals in the soft tissues and joints. These crystal deposits cause swelling, Read More

Bunions Vs. Arthritis

Bunions and arthritis are sometimes confused as interchangeable. However, they are not the same and patients should take note of the facts if they suspect they may have one of Read More

How to Recognize Psoriatic Arthritis

Psoriatic arthritis is a type of arthritis, or inflammation of the joints, that is characterized by swollen, painful or tender joints, a limited range of motion, and stiffness, as well Read More

How to Diagnose Arthritis in Fingers

Hands that are suddenly sore, stiff in the morning or whose joints are painful and swollen may be showing signs of arthritis. If your fingers are bothering you, a correct Read More

Difference Between Arthritis & Rheumatoid Arthritis

Arthritis is a condition in which inflamed joints cause pain and disability. There are more than 100 types of arthritis including rheumatoid arthritis, which usually affects the small joints in Read More

What Is the Difference Between Arthritis & Arthrosis?

Arthritis and arthrosis can be confused at times, and treatment depends on which ailment you suffer from. Here's an explanation of both to help you distinguish between them. Read More

Read this article:
Arthritis | Conditions & Treatments | eHow

Symptoms

The most common signs and symptoms of arthritis involve the joints. Depending on the type of arthritis you have, your signs and symptoms may include:

The two main types of arthritis osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis damage joints in different ways.

The most common type of arthritis, osteoarthritis involves wear-and-tear damage to your joint's cartilage the hard, slick coating on the ends of bones. Enough damage can result in bone grinding directly on bone, which causes pain and restricted movement. This wear and tear can occur over many years, or it can be hastened by a joint injury or infection.

In rheumatoid arthritis, the body's immune system attacks the lining of the joint capsule, a tough membrane that encloses all the joint parts. This lining, known as the synovial membrane, becomes inflamed and swollen. The disease process can eventually destroy cartilage and bone within the joint.

Risk factors for arthritis include:

Severe arthritis, particularly if it affects your hands or arms, can make it difficult for you to do daily tasks. Arthritis of weight-bearing joints can keep you from walking comfortably or sitting up straight. In some cases, joints may become twisted and deformed.

Jan. 07, 2016

Read more:
Symptoms and causes - Arthritis - Mayo Clinic

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most prevalent type of arthritis, affecting more than three million Canadians thats one in 10! Though once referred to as the wear-and-tear arthritis, the Osteoarthritis Research Society International (OARSI) recently re-defined this condition. It describes OA as the result of the bodys failed attempt to repair damaged joint tissues. However, OA isnt always developed due to abnormal stresses or injury; it may also occur as part of the normal aging process. This condition leads to the breakdown of cartilage (the tough elastic material that covers and protects the ends of bones) and the underlying bone, resulting in pain, stiffness, swelling and bone-on-bone reduction in range of movement in the affected joint. The joints most commonly affected by OA are the knees, hips and those in the hands and spine. The cause of OA is multi-factorial and complex, with development of OA depending on interplay between factors such as age, obesity, gender, occupation (injury as a result of a physical job), participation in certain sports, history of joint injury or surgery and genetics.

Inflammatory arthritis is a group of conditions whereby the bodys defense system begins to attack the tissues of our joints instead of germs, viruses and other foreign substances. This can result in stiffness, pain and joint damage.As a result of this damage, some of the joints may gradually change shape and deformities can develop. Once a joint is damaged, the damage cannot be reversed. Early treatment aimed at reducing inflammation is important to prevent damage to the joint and, for some forms of inflammatory arthritis, to other organs. Inflammatory arthritis is often called systemic because it can affect the whole body. The most common forms of inflammatory arthritis are: rheumatoid arthritis (RA), ankylosing spondylitis and psoriatic arthritis. Inflammatory arthritis also affects children.

More here:
About Arthritis - Arthritis Society

IN this issue of GENETICS we launch FlyBook, which will present the current state of knowledge of the molecular biology, cellular biology, developmental biology, and genetics of the fruit fly Drosophila.

That we commence this project at the end of the journals first century is fitting: it was work on Drosophila that established the genetic basis of Mendels laws of inheritance (leading to Drosophilas first Nobel prize in 1933). In fact, the very first article published in the journal described experiments with Drosophila that established chromosomes as the carriers of hereditary information (watch for a Perspectives article in January commemorating that article).

The prominence of Drosophila in the pantheon of model organisms is undisputed. T. H. Morgan knew that it could serve as a model multicellular organism when he chose it for his path-breaking work early in the last century, and his prescience has been apparent in nearly every issue of GENETICS. In fact, >20% of the 18,000 articles in GENETICS feature Drosophila in the title!

We did not need to be reminded of how similar Drosophilas genes are to those of other organisms (including ours) when complete genome sequences started appearing 15 years ago, but it was heartening to see. Studies of Drosophila will no doubt continue to inform biology for decades to come.

We have acquired an enormous amount of information about the biology of the fruit fly, and have devised innovative experimental approaches for its study. FlyBook aims to make that information and insight accessible to scientists unfamiliar with Drosophila as well as to the seasoned Drosophila researcher.

FlyBook will span the breadth of Drosophila biology in 50 chapters that will appear as review articles in GENETICS, and will also be compiled on a separate FlyBook website. This enables FlyBook to benefit from the established infrastructure of GENETICSits professional preparation and presentation of articles; its indexing, search, and navigation functions; helpful article features unique to GENETICS, such as direct linking of terms to FlyBase; and its outstanding peer editing. GENETICS is a fitting venue for this updated model of a book.

Experts in their fields will write the chapters, which will be edited by a stellar group of scientists serving on the FlyBook Editorial Board. We thank our Section editors and the authors for their selfless service to GENETICS, to the Genetics Society of America (GSA), and to science.

Work on the fruit fly has yielded much insight into neurobiology, so it is fitting that we launch FlyBook with two articles on this subject. In addition, a Commentary by Gerry Rubin sets FlyBook in perspective.

FlyBook continues the GSAs long tradition of supporting, promoting, and presenting model organism research. FlyBook joins Yeastbook (http://www.genetics.org/site/misc/yeastbook.xhtml) as an important resource for the genetics community. We are proud to present in this issue of GENETICS the first two chapters of what we know will be a seminal series of articles.

Section Editors CELL SIGNALING Marek Mlodzik Mount Sinai School of Medicine Jessica E. Treisman New York University School of Medicine

DEVELOPMENT & GROWTH Trudi Schpbach Princeton University Carl S. Thummel University of Utah

ECOLOGY & EVOLUTION Terese Ann Markow University of California, San Diego Trudy F. C. Mackay North Carolina State University

GENE EXPRESSION Brian Oliver NIH Eileen Furlong EMBL

GENOME ORGANIZATION Sue Celniker Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Gary Karpen Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

METHODS Norbert Perrimon Harvard Medical School Hugo Bellen Baylor College of Medicine

NERVOUS SYSTEM & BEHAVIOR John R. Carlson Yale University James W. Truman HHMI, Janelia Research Campus

REPAIR, RECOMBINATION, & CELL DIVISION R. Scott Hawley Stowers Institute for Medical Research Terry Orr-Weaver MIT

STEM CELLS & GERMLINE Ruth Lehmann NYU School of Medicine, Skirball Institute Allan C. Spradling HHMI

See the rest here:
FlyBook! | Genetics

About Inherited Conditions

Many diseases and disorders are caused by a persons genetic makeup. These include abnormalities in genes that occur randomly or because of environmental exposures. Other genetic factors run in the family and are inherited at birth from one or both parents.

The Division of Medical Genetics, based in the University of Iowa Department of Pediatrics and UI Childrens Hospital, is a comprehensive statewide resource for families and health care professionals.

Our multidisciplinary team provides hospital- and clinic-based medical care for children and adults with genetic conditions. Testing, diagnosis, counseling, and treatment services include:

We understand that genetic diseases and disorders affect families as well as individuals. Our medical team provides the information, support, and follow-up you need to make informed decisions. We will work with your family physician so you will continue to receive the best all-around care as you move forward. We also collaborate with state and federal agencies, educators, researchers, support groups, and others to provide the latest information and treatment options for Iowans and their families.

From Our UI Children's Hospital Specialists

Read more health library articles on pediatric genetics

A new standardized test for infants alerted doctors to Zachs MCAD deficiency, possibly saving his young life.Read more about Zachs story.

Zephan was born with Alagille syndrome and has had many surgeries because of it, but has made giant strides.Read more about Zephans story.

Andrew was growing up a little bit smaller than the rest of his classmates and new tests revealed why.Read more about Andrews story.

Parking: Parking and Wayfinding. Valet Services Available In House Directions: Elevator F, Level 2.

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See the article here:
Genetics Clinic - University of Iowa Children's Hospital

The first major-specific course required of freshman genetics majors is Careers in Genetics and Biochemistry. This introductory course brings in professionals to aid students in discovering the diversity of career opportunities available from this degree. This course also helps you become aware of professional organizations, ethical issues and the requirements for advanced studies.

In the first two years at Clemson, youll take various science courses such as general and organic chemistry, biology, physics and mathematics.These will prepare you for upper-level course work that includes molecular biochemistry, molecular and general genetics, comparative genetics and population genetics. Additionally, youll be able to tailor your degree to your specific interests by selecting from approved scientific courses such as microbiology, immunology, and human anatomy and physiology.

Genetics students spend quite a bit of time in Clemsons laboratories with our nationally recognized faculty. Our faculty have diverse research interests from alternative fuel to molecular parasitology. You also have a chance to participate in internships and study abroad, as well as join any of Clemsons hundreds of student organizations.

View original post here:
Genetics (B.S.) | Degree Programs | Clemson University, South ...

Honor the Life and Accomplishments of Professor Jim Crow with a Donation to The Crow Professorship

Over the next year, The Laboratory of Genetics will honor Professor Jim Crow in anticipation of what would have been his 100th birthday. A birthday celebration will take place in Fall 2016 in the form of a symposium and dinner. In preparation for the fall celebration, the department is focused on reaching a $1 million goal to have a professorship in Prof. Crows honor. If the Crow Professorship fund reaches $50,000 in gifts and pledges by June 8, the new gifts and pledges will be matched dollar for dollar.

Click here to read the full article and make a donation to The Crow Professorship.

Welcome to the University of Wisconsin-Madison Laboratory of Genetics. The Laboratory of Genetics is comprised of two sister departments that function as one. The Department of Genetics in the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences was founded in 1910 and is the oldest genetics department in the country. The Department of Medical Genetics, which recently celebrated its fiftieth anniversary, is housed within the School of Medicine and Public Health. Our mission is to address fundamental problems in genetics as they relate to medicine, agriculture, and basic knowledge of biology.

The Laboratory of Genetics is also home to the Genetics Training Program, with over 80 faculty trainers from diverse departments on campus that together provide graduate students diverse opportunities in modern genetics research. Please visit our pages to find out more about us.

John Doebley Chair, Laboratory of Genetics

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University of Wisconsin Laboratory of Genetics

Course Description

BIOL 2316 GENETICS (3-3-0) is an introduction to the basic concepts of human heredity and cytogenetics including Mendelian, molecular, and population genetics. Prerequisite is BIOL 1406 Cell and Molecular Biology or BIOL 2304 Human Anatomy with minimum grade of C.

Instructional Methodology

This is a three-credit lecture course.

Course Rationale

BIOL 2316 Genetics is an intensive sophomore-level course that explores modern genetics. The course is divided into three parts.

Common Course Objectives

The common course objectives are available at http://www2.austincc.edu/biology/ccobjectives.

Grading Rubric

TESTS: There will befour unit tests whose dates are listed on the attached schedule. Each of these tests is worth 100 points. Each test will have 10 questions and will be designed to be completed in one hour in class. There is no curve. Students who receive below 70 on a test may hand in test corrections within 1 week to receive up to 6 additional points. One make-up test is allowed with prior permission of the instructor. Contact me in advance to arrange for a make-up test. Tests are given on material discussed in class, so regular attendance is strongly encouraged.

CLASS ACTIVITIES: Activities are given out throughout the semester to reinforce ideas discussed in lecture. These are usually small group activities and are graded at 5-10 points each. One make-up is allowed if a student is absent. It is the students responsibility to complete these class activity sheets and hand them in for grading. The grading rubric will be adjusted at the end of the semester to reflect the exact number of class activity points that may be obtained this semester.

HOMEWORK PROBLEMS: The study of genetics involves considerable problem-solving. Therefore, homework problems are provided for each chapter. There will be a total of 100 questions assigned, each one worth 1 point. These problems are similar to questions on the test, so successful completion usually improves test grades. Each problem set is due the week following the day the relevant chapter was discussed in class. Late homeworks will be accepted, but will be discounted 5% for each class they are late. Late homework handed in after the test date will not be accepted.

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION: Each student will develop a PowerPoint presentation on a genetic disease or syndrome to be handed in on April 19 as indicated on the syllabus. Details will be provided later in the semester.

Grade Component

Points

4 tests @ 100 pts each

400

Class activities

~50

HW problems

100

PowerPoint disease project

50

Total points

600

Read more from the original source:
Syllabus - Genetics

Overview

The University of Alabama at Birmingham Genetics Training Program is accredited by the American Board of Medical Genetics to provide training in clinical biochemical genetics, clinical molecular genetics, and clinical cytogenetics. Fellowship programs are each two to three years in length.

Application Eligibility

Trainees must be eligible to sit for the ABMG examination in the clinical laboratory specialty to which they are applying upon completion of the program. A complete list of eligibility criteria is available on theABMG Web site.

Trainees who have received doctoral degrees outside the U.S., Puerto Rico, or Canada must comply with additional requirements, which are outlined at theABMG Web site. Please note: Trainees who hold an M.D. or equivalent from a foreign country must have either a standard certificate from the ECFMG or have passed the Test of Spoken English (TSE).

Application Process

Applicants interested in applying to the ABMG Fellowship Program should provide the following:

NOTE: Please note that our next opening will be in July 2017. We will accept applications for the 2017 cycle from March 15th -September 15th, 2016. We will NOT be accepting any applications for the 2016 cycle.

Applications will not be considered complete until all information is received. Applications are reviewed by the program director.

Application deadline : September 15 Eligible applicant interview : October Final decision: End of November Fellowship start date: July 1st

Contact

Shaila P. Handattu PhD, PMP Program Director II University of Alabama at Birmingham Department of Genetics Kaul 230, 720 20th Street South Birmingham, AL 35294 Phone: (205) 934-9417 Fax: (205) 934-9488 E-mail: hande@uab.edu

More:
UAB - SOM - Department of Genetics - UASOM Department of ...

Genetic Changes and Cancer

Cancer is a genetic diseasethat is, cancer is caused by certain changes to genes that control the way our cells function, especially how they grow and divide. These changes include mutations in the DNA that makes up our genes.

Genetic changes that increase cancer risk can be inherited from our parents if the changes are present in germ cells, which are the reproductive cells of the body (eggs and sperm). Such changes, called germline changes, are found in every cell of the offspring.

Cancer-causing genetic changes can also be acquired during ones lifetime, as the result of errors that occur as cells divide during a persons lifetime or exposure to substances, such as certain chemicals in tobacco smoke, and radiation, such as ultraviolet rays from the sun, that damage DNA.

Genetic changes that occur after conception are called somatic (or acquired) changes. They can arise at any time during a persons life. The number of cells in the body that carry such changes depends on when the changes occur during a persons lifetime.

In general, cancer cells have more genetic changes than normal cells. But each persons cancer has a unique combination of genetic alterations. Some of these changes may be the result of cancer, rather than the cause. As the cancer continues to grow, additional changes will occur. Even within the same tumor, cancer cells may have different genetic changes.

Inherited genetic mutations play a major role in about 5 to 10 percent of all cancers. Researchers have associated mutations in specific genes with more than 50 hereditary cancer syndromes, which are disorders that may predispose individuals to developing certain cancers.

Genetic tests can tell whether a person from a family that shows signs of such a syndrome has one of these mutations. These tests can also show whether family members without obvious disease have inherited the same mutation as a family member who carries a cancer-associated mutation. (For more information, see this overview of genetic testing for hereditary cancer syndromes.)

Many experts recommend that genetic testing for cancer risk be considered when someone has a personal or family history that suggests an inherited cancer risk condition, as long as the test results can be adequately interpreted (that is, they can clearly tell whether a specific genetic change is present or absent) and when the results provide information that will help guide a persons future medical care.

Cancers that are not caused by inherited genetic mutations can sometimes appear to run in families. For example, a shared environment or lifestyle, such as tobacco use, can cause similar cancers to develop among family members. However, certain patterns in a familysuch as the types of cancer that develop, other non-cancer conditions that are seen, and the ages at which cancer developsmay suggest the presence of a hereditary cancer syndrome.

Even if a cancer-predisposing mutation is present in a family, not everyone who inherits the mutation will necessarily develop cancer. Several factors influence the outcome in a given person with the mutation, including the pattern of inheritance of the cancer syndrome.

Here are examples of genes that can play a role in hereditary cancer syndromes.

For more genes that can play a role in hereditary cancer syndromes, see Genetic Testing for Hereditary Cancer Syndromes.

Genetic tests are usually requested by a persons doctor or other health care provider. Genetic counseling can help people consider the risks, benefits, and limitations of genetic testing in their particular situations.

The results of genetic tests can be positive, negative, or uncertain. A genetic counselor, doctor, or other health care professional trained in genetics can help an individual or family understand their test results. These professionals can also help explain the incidental findings that a test may yield, such as a genetic risk factor for a disease that is unrelated to the reason for administering the test. And they can clarify the implications of test results for other family members.

Medical test results are normally included in a persons medical records, particularly if a doctor or other health care provider has ordered the test or has been consulted about the test results. Therefore, people considering genetic testing should understand that their results may become known to other people or organizations that have legitimate, legal access to their medical records, such as their insurance company or employer, if their employer provides the patients health insurance as a benefit.

However, legal protections are in place to prevent genetic discrimination. The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 is a federal law that prohibits discrimination based on genetic information in determining health insurance eligibility or rates and suitability for employment. In addition, because a persons genetic information is considered health information, it is covered by the Privacy Rule of the Health Information Portability and Accountability Act of 1996.

Until recently, most genetic testing for cancer focused on testing for individual inherited mutations. But, as more efficient and cheaper DNA sequencing technologies have become available, sequencing of an individuals entire genome or the DNA of an individuals tumor is becoming more common.

Clinical DNA sequencing can be useful in detecting many genetic mutations at one time. Targeted multiple-gene panels test for many inherited mutations or somatic mutations at the same time. These panels can include different genes and be tailored to individual tumor types. Targeted gene panels limit the data to be analyzed and include only known genes, which makes the interpretation more straightforward than in broader approaches that assess the whole genome (or tumor genome) or significant parts of it. Multiple-gene panel tests are becoming increasingly common in genetic testing for hereditary cancer syndromes.

Tumor sequencing can identify somatic mutations that may be driving the growth of particular cancers. It can also help doctors sort out which therapies may work best against a particular tumor. For instance, patients whose lung tumors harbor certain mutations may benefit from drugs that target these particular changes.

Testing tumor DNA may reveal a mutation that has not previously been found in that tumor type. But if that mutation occurs in another tumor type and a targeted therapy has been developed for the alteration, the treatment may be effective in the new tumor type as well.

Tumor sequencing can also identify germline mutations. Indeed, in some cases, the genetic testing of tumors has shown that a patients cancer could be associated with a hereditary cancer syndrome that the family was not aware of.

As with testing for specific mutations in hereditary cancer syndromes, clinical DNA sequencing has implications that patients need to consider. For example, they may learn incidentally about the presence of germline mutations that may cause other diseases, in them or in their family members.

See the rest here:
The Genetics of Cancer - National Cancer Institute

Related Links http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEPC/NIH

Understanding Genetic Testing, Access Excellence

Online Genetics Education Resources, National Human Genome Research Institute

Genetic Education Modules for Teachers

The Human Genome Project Completion FAQs

Genetics Education Center, University of Kansas Medical Center

Genetic Science Learning Center, University of Utah

Genetics, Wikipedia

Genetics is the study of the function and behavior of genes. Genes, the basic units of heredity, are biochemical instructions composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and are found inside the cells of every organism, from bacteria to humans. An organisms genes, which reside in one or more chromosomes, determine its characteristics, or traits. The sum of all an organisms genes is called its genome. In other words, the genome is divided into chromosomes, chromosomes contain genes, and genes are made of DNA.

Geneticists seek to understand how the information encoded in genes is used and controlled by cells and how it is transmitted from one generation to the next. They also study how tiny variations in genes can disrupt an organisms development or cause disease.

The term classical genetics refers to the techniques and methodologies of genetics that predate the advent of molecular genetics, which studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level. Classical genetics, which remains a basis for all other topics in genetics, primarily is concerned with the method by which genetic traits are transmitted in plants and animals. These traits are classified as dominant (always expressed), recessive (subordinate to a dominant trait), intermediate (partially expressed) or polygenic (due to multiple genes). In addition, the traits are either sex-linked (result from the action of a gene on one of the sex chromosomes) or autosomal (result from the action of a gene on a chromosome other than a sex chromosome).

Classical genetics began with Austrian monk Gregor Mendel, who traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and showed they could be described mathematically (Mendels laws). Mendels 1865 publication, Experiments on Plant Hybridization, went largely unnoticed until the early 20th century. The patterns of inheritance that Mendel observed still are employed for the study of genetic diseases.

Molecular genetics employs the methods of genetics and molecular biology, the branch of biology that deals with the formation, structure and function of macromolecules essential to life (such as nucleic acids and proteins) and especially with their role in cell replication and the transmission of genetic information. The avenues of investigation open to geneticists were broadened greatly by the elucidation of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick, in 1953. In the 1970s, the discovery of restriction enzymes (which catalyze the cleavage of DNA at specific sites to produce discrete fragments) permitted scientists to begin sequencing genes (determining the exact order of the four subunits of DNA adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine); cloning genes (producing a replica of a gene from one organism); and moving genes from one organism to another to create genetically modified organisms (GMOs). The latter two procedures are known collectively as recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering.

Population, quantitative and ecological genetics, all very closely related subfields, build on classical genetics (supplemented with modern molecular genetics). Though all three study populations of organisms, they differ somewhat in their focus. Population genetics studies the distribution of and change in the frequencies of genes under the influence of evolutionary forces, such as natural selection, mutations and migration. Quantitative genetics, which builds on population genetics, is the study of continuous traits (such as height or weight) that do not have straightforward Mendelian inheritance because they result from the interaction of many different genes. Ecological genetics again builds on the basic principles of population genetics but is focused more explicitly on ecological issues, such as the relationship between species and their environments.

Medical genetics is the application of genetics to medicine. Medical genetics encompasses many different individual fields, including clinical genetics (the diagnosis and treatment of genetic diseases), cytogenetics (the study of chromosomes under a microscope), molecular genetics and genetic counseling (education and guidance offered by professional advisors to help people make informed decisions based on personal genetic information).

Behavioral genetics examines the role of genetics in animal behavior. In humans, behavioral genetics studies the genetic basis of personality as well as the causes and effects of human disorders such as mental illness, substance abuse, violence and social attitudes.

Genomics examines large-scale genetic patterns across the genome for a given species. The information derived from genome sequence data further reveals what genes do, how they are controlled and how they work together. The now-completed Human Genome Project has created a genetic blueprint for building a human being. This vital information will enable researchers to discover the genetic contributions to diseases, develop highly effective diagnostic tools and treatments and understand the health needs of people based on their individual genetic makeups.

Go here to read the rest:
Genetics | Bioscience Topics | About Bioscience

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This course presents students with the concepts of genetics. Students will examine mitosis and meiosis, chromosomes, DNA structure, gene mutation, and genome dynamics.

This undergraduate-level course is 5 weeks. This course is available to take individually or as part of a degree or certificate program. To enroll, speak with an Enrollment Representative.

The University of Phoenix reserves the right to modify courses.

While widely available, not all programs are available in all locations or in both online and on-campus formats. Please check with a University Enrollment Representative.

Transferability of credit is at the discretion of the receiving institution. It is the students responsibility to confirm whether or not credits earned at University of Phoenix will be accepted by another institution of the students choice.

Link:
Genetics - BIO410 - University of Phoenix

GENETICS

A major in genetics can lead to careers in fields as diverse as agriculture, criminology, and communication. Below is a list, by no means comprehensive, of careers geneticists pursue. Browse through this list to get an overview of each kind of career.

Common careers

Geneticists conduct research in various fields of science, ranging from agriculture to wildlife biology. The list below describes some areas of research, listed in alphabetical order, in these fields.

Education: The minimum educational requirement to be hired as a plant geneticist is a bachelors degree in biology, genetics, agriculture, or a closely related field. Since genetics draws heavily on mathematics, statistics, and biochemistry, a solid foundation in these subjects is also important.

The minimal educational requirement for a plant genetics research assistant position is a bachelors degree in genetics, agronomy, crop science, or a related degree. The skill set required of a research assistant varies according to the research project and can include experience in working with certain crops or knowledge of particular plant diseases, ability to maintain greenhouse plants and database inventory records, and ability to analyze phenotypic and genotypic data and perform molecular biology techniques such as PCR and Western blotting.

A masters and PhD degree will strongly increase opportunities to conduct independent research.

Places of employment: Plant geneticists can find work in federal, state, or local government laboratories; agricultural experiment stations; botanical gardens, arboretums, national parks; university laboratories; or private agricultural companies.

Useful links:

Careers in genetics and the biosciences: http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/education/careers-6new.pdf

Genetics and plant biology career snapshot: http://nature.berkeley.edu/site/forms/oisa/gpb_career_snapshot.pdf

How can genetic information be useful in natural resource management? http://www.grcp.ucdavis.edu/projects/GeneticFactsheets/Vol_02_print.pdf

Education and Places of employment: A certificate or an associates degree in medical or veterinary technology is the minimum qualification to work as a technician in an animal genetics lab. A bachelors degree in science (for example, genetics, biology, biochemistry, or poultry science) followed by a masters degree in an area of specialization is likely to increase job prospects. If youre interested in bioinformatics, besides biology, courses in math, statistics, and computer sciences are essential. A PhD is usually required for teaching at the college level or for conducting independent research.

Places of employment: Animal geneticists can find work in animal biotechnology companies, breeding companies, livestock genetics industries, zoos, non-profit organizations involved in the conservation of endangered species, hatcheries, universities, and the federal government.

Useful links:

Texas A&M University Animal Genetics Laboratory: http://catdnatest.org/TexasAM.html

Texas A&M University Equine Embryo Laboratory: http://vetmed.tamu.edu/equine-embryo-laboratory

Animal geneticist. Knowing genes. Improving animals: http://www.agriculture.purdue.edu/usda/careers/pdfs/AnimalGeneticist.pdf

Education: The minimum qualification required to work as a research technician or a research assistant in a laboratory conducting genetics-based entomological research is a bachelors degree in entomology, genetics, molecular biology, or a related field. In addition to a strong science background, some research technician positions require experience in DNA-based techniques and in maintaining insectaries as well as computer skills to collect and analyze data. Masters and PhD degrees increase opportunities for research.

Places of employment: These include government agencies, pest control and agrochemical companies, nature centers, and universities.

Education: For research positions, the minimum qualification is a bachelors degree in genetics, biology, environmental science, ecology, botany, zoology, or a related field. Masters and PhD degrees increase opportunities for research.

Places of employment: These include federal agencies (for example, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service), private and non-profit conservation and environmental organizations, nature and forest preserves, zoos, botanical gardens, and universities.

Useful links:

Conservation geneticist. A variety of career directions: http://medicine.jrank.org/pages/2097/Conservation-Geneticist-Variety-Career-Directions.html

Conservation genetics. The University of Utah. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/archive/conservation/index.html

Education: Refer to the Forensics major section

Places of employment: Refer to the Forensics major section

Useful links:

National Center for Forensic Science: http://ncfs.ucf.edu/index.html

Wildlife forensics: http://www.enotes.com/forensic-science/wildlife-forensics

DNA forensics: http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/forensics.shtml

Forensic genomics: http://www.forensicgenomics.nl//index.php?parentContentID=&contentID=8ba4ff43-d52c-4b56-a975-1ecedcb96ee4

Research careers in forensics: http://sciencecareers.sciencemag.org/career_development/previous_issues/articles/2006_09_15/research_careers_in_forensics/

Education: A strong foundation in mathematics and science is good preparation for research in human genetics. Masters and PhD degrees increase opportunities for research. An MD-PhD degree, which provides training in both clinical and basic science, increases opportunities to conduct translational research.

Places of employment: These include medical centers, research institutes, hospitals, and biotech companies.

Useful links:

The future of genetics. Career opportunities for young scientists. http://sciencecareers.sciencemag.org/career_magazine/previous_issues/articles/2006_09_29/noDOI.6711002142138644027

National Human Genome Research Institute Research Investigators: http://www.genome.gov/10000297

Microbial genetics involves studying the genetics of microbes such as bacteria and fungi. Listed below are some areas of research.

Education: An advanced degree in science may not be required for entry-level positions as a research assistant in a microbial genetics laboratory. However, a masters degree in genetics, genomics, or microbiology followed by a PhD increase opportunities for research.

Places of employment: These include government agencies, medical centers, universities, pharmaceutical companies, the agricultural industry, and diagnostic laboratories.

Useful links:

Bacterial geneticist/genomicist: http://www.genome.gov/GenomicCareers/career.cfm?id=1

(Also, explore areas of research within the fields of bioinformatics and computational genetics as they overlap with those in the field of statistical genetics.)

Education: Training to become a statistical geneticist can begin with an undergraduate degree in mathematics, statistics, physics, or computer science followed by a graduate degree in statistical genetics. It is also possible to begin with an undergraduate degree in biology or genetics followed by courses in statistics in graduate school. The key is to have a strong background in both biology and mathematics. Computer programming skills are an asset.

Places of employment: These include biostatistics and epidemiology departments in universities; state or federal genetic, genomic, or health centers (for example, the National Institutes of Health (NIH)); and biotechnology, pharmaceutical, and pharmacogenomic companies.

Useful links:

Count on it (Article from naturejobs.com on skills required and employment opportunities in statistical genetics): http://www.nature.com/naturejobs/2007/070222/full/nj7130-946a.html

Carolina center for genome sciences, Bioinformatics and computational biology training program: http://genomics.unc.edu/training/bcb.html

Statistical genetics short coursefeaturing Mendel software: http://genomics.unc.edu/events/statgen/ (This course was held in 2010, but check Web site for updates.)

University of Washington, Summer Institute in Statistical Genetics: http://www.biostat.washington.edu/suminst/sisg/general

University of Michigan, Center for statistical genetics: http://csg.sph.umich.edu/index.php (Examples of job descriptions within the field of statistical genetics)

Genetic Analysis Workshop. Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research: http://www.gaworkshop.org/index.html

A review on the field of statistical genetics: http://schizophreniabulletin.oxfordjournals.org/content/33/1/95.abstract

Statistical geneticist: http://medicine.jrank.org/pages/2857/Statistical-Geneticist.html

Nature Reviews Genetics. Computational genetics: http://www.nature.com/nrg/focus/compgen/index.html (Collection of papers on computational genetics)

Education: A bachelors degree in genetics, biology, biomedical science or a related field is the minimum qualification for entry-level positions as a research technician in the field of veterinary medicine. Masters and PhD degrees lead to opportunities to conduct independent research.

Places of employment: These include veterinary genetic laboratories, private companies that offer veterinary genetic services, universities, animal breeders, biotechnology companies, and medical research institutes.

Education: For research positions, the minimum qualification is a bachelors degree in wildlife biology, zoology, or a related field. Masters and PhD degrees increase opportunities for research.

Places of employment: Federal agencies (for example, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service), private and non-profit conservation and environmental organizations, nature and forest preserves, zoos, and wildlife genetics laboratories in universities.

Useful links:

Conservation genetics: http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/archive/conservation/

Clinical geneticists are doctors who work with patients to identify, diagnose, and treat genetic diseases. They may also conduct research on genetic disorders; teach interns and residents about the diagnosis and management of clinical genetic disorders; and have administrative roles, for example, planning and coordinating large-scale screening programs for genetic diseases.

Education: After obtaining a medical degree, clinical geneticists complete 2 years of residency in medical disciplines approved by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME), followed by a 2-year ACMGE-accredited residency in clinical genetics. They may then obtain certification (which involves passing an examination administered by the American Board of Medical Genetics) in one of four specialties: clinical genetics, clinical biochemical genetics, clinical cytogenetics, and clinical molecular genetics. (Clinical biochemical geneticists, cytogeneticists, and molecular geneticists may have either an MD or a PhD degree in genetics or a related biological science.)

Places of employment: Clinical geneticists work in research centers, hospitals, or medical centers or have private practices.

Useful links:

American Board of Medical Genetics. Training options: http://www.abmg.org/pages/training_options.shtml

American Board of Medical Genetics. Specialties of genetics. http://www.abmg.org/pages/training_specialties.shtml

Clinical geneticist. http://www.bookrags.com/research/clinical-geneticist-gen-01/

American Board of Medical Specialties: http://www.abms.org/who_we_help/consumers/about_physician_specialties/medical.aspx

Careers in genetics. Genetics Society of America: http://www.genetics-gsa.org/pages/careers_fisher.shtml

Clinical laboratory technologists or scientists perform chemical, biological, hematological, immunologic, microscopic, and bacteriological tests. For example, they may examine body fluids for the presence of bacteria, determine the concentration of compounds such as blood glucose, and prepare blood samples for transfusion. They not only perform laboratory procedures, but interpret test results, conduct research, develop new test methods, perform quality control, and supervise clinical laboratory technicians.

Technologists in large laboratories specialize in a particular field of laboratory science. For example, cytotechnologists examine cells for chromosomal abnormalities.

Education: The minimal educational requirement to qualify for an entry-level position as a clinical laboratory technologist is generally a bachelors degree with a major in medical technology or one of the life sciences.

Bachelors degree programs in medical technology include courses in chemistry, biology, microbiology, math, statistics, management, business, computers as well as specialized clinical laboratory science courses. These programs are offered by universities and academic medical centers, and graduates with a Bachelor of Science degree are eligible to apply to them.

To find a clinical laboratory scientist/medical technologist program accredited by the National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences (NAACLS), refer to http://www.naacls.org/search/programs.asp.

Graduates of a clinical laboratory science program are eligible for national certification as a clinical laboratory scientist/medical technician by passing an exam administered by the American Society for Clinical Pathology Board of Certification. (For a listing of the certifications and qualifications offered by the board, visit http://www.ascp.org/boc.)

For information on the eligibility criteria for these examinations, visit http://www.ascp.org/FunctionalNavigation/certification/GetCertified/TechnicianCertification.aspx.

Certification and accreditation can also be obtained through the National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences (NAACLS) and the American Medical Technologists (AMT).

Useful links:

Clinical laboratory science program, MD Anderson. http://www.mdanderson.org/education-and-research/education-and-training/schools-and-programs/school-of-health-professions/programs-and-courses/clinical-laboratory-science/index.html

American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science: http://www.ascls.org/?page=Career_Toolkit

Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians: http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos096.htm

Cytogenetics is the study of chromosomal abnormalities underlying human diseases. A cytogeneticist prepares biological specimens such as blood, amniotic fluid, bone marrow, and tumors for chromosome analysis. This involves preparing cell cultures and staining chromosomes using techniques such as fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and knowledge of techniques such as PCR, fluorescence microscopy, nucleic acid purification, agarose gel electrophoresis, and immunofluorescence staining. For a detailed list of skills expected of cytogenetic technologists, refer to the PDF prepared by the Association of Genetic Technologists (AGT). You can find it here: http://www.agt-info.org/Documents/Cyto%20Statements%20of%20Competence%202001.pdf

Education: The minimum educational requirement to be a cytogenetic technologist is an undergraduate in genetics, biochemistry, or biology followed by a cytogenetic technology program and certification (which is required by some laboratories). Choose a cytotechnology program that is accredited by the National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences.

An undergraduate degree in cytogenetics may be followed directly by certification. A national certification exam is offered by the Board of Registry of the American Society for Clinical Pathology.

Places of employment: Cytogenetic technologists may find work in research institutions, hospitals, and medical laboratories.

Useful links:

MD Anderson Cancer Center, cytogenetic technology program: http://www.mdanderson.org/education-and-research/education-and-training/schools-and-programs/school-of-health-professions/programs-and-courses/cytogenetic-technology/index.html

Mayo Clinic cytogenetic technology program: http://www.mayo.edu/mshs/cytogen-cytogen.html

Cytogenetic technology program: http://www.uthscsa.edu/shp/cyto/success.asp

Occupational network online, Cytogenetic technologists: http://online.onetcenter.org/link/summary/29-2011.01

Cytogenetic Technologist: http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/40/ls05-cytogen-tech.pdf

Health Careers Center, Cytogenetic Technologist:

http://www.mshealthcareers.com/careers/cytogenetictechnologist.htm

http://www.wisegeek.com/how-do-i-become-a-cytogenetic-technologist.htm

http://education-portal.com/cytogenetic_technologist.html

Association of genetic technologists: http://www.agt-info.org/

Molecular genetic technologists study DNA for various purposes: to determine familial cancer risk, to diagnose neurological disorders, to identify microbiological agents, to match tissues for organ transplantation, to identify disaster or crime victims, and to determine parentage.

The following are some examples of skills molecular genetic technologists should have, according to the Statements of competence for molecular genetic technologists.

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