StemCell Therapy

False hope for real money

Internet sites for clinics all around the worldincluding the US, but especially in China, India, the Caribbean, Latin America, and nations of the former Soviet Unionoffer stem-cell-based treatments for people suffering from a dizzying array of serious conditions.

Never mind that cancer is the only disease category for which there is published, scientifically valid evidence showing that stem cell therapy may help. Thousands, if not tens of thousands, of desperate people are flocking to clinics that charge tens of thousands of dollars for every unproven treatment.

Traveling for therapy, or stem cell tourism, was the subject of a panel discussion titled Stem Cell Therapy and Medical Tourism: Of Promise and Peril? arranged by HSCI in collaboration with the Petrie-Flom Center for Health Law Policy, Biotechnology, and Bioethics.

Brock Reeve, HSCI executive director, introduced the topic by pointing out that there are positive and negative aspects to medical tourism. For example, patients flock from all over the world to the Harvard-affiliated Massachusetts General Hospital, Brigham and Womens Hospital, Dana-Farber Center Institute, and other Boston research hospitals for cutting-edge, scientifically validated treatments for a host of diseases.

But then there is the other kind of medical tourism, and every member of the panel agreed with speaker Timothy A. Caulfield, LL.M, the Canada Research chair in health, law, and policy at the University of Alberta, when he said that the stem cell tourism phenomenon hurts the legitimacy of the entire field of stem cell science and medicine.

While adult stem cells have been used for decades to treat a number of malignanciesbone marrow transplants are, in fact, are the only stem cell treatments that are not experimental.

George Daley, MD, PhD, a member of the Harvard Stem Cell Institutes executive committee and past president of the International Society for Stem Cell Research, added that we are seeing a growing number [of legitimate clinical trials] but all such uses are experimental ... and there is great skepticism as to whether we have the scientific knowledge and basis even to predict that these will be effective. It may, he said, take decades before there is certainty. The only stem cell therapies that have been proven safe and effective, he said, are those constituting what is known as bone marrow transplantation for treatment of some cancers.

But the clinics selling stem cell therapy for a sweeping catalog of diseases arent offering patients places in clinical trials. They are touting what they claim are established treatments, with proven results. Caulfield said a number of his studies demonstrate that treatments are offered as safe, routine, and effective, but none of what is being offered matched what the scientific literature said. He accused the clinics of financial exploitation of desperate people, and said those who raise money to finance pilgrimages to them are raising money to turn over to a fraud.

I. Glenn Cohen, JD, professor at Harvard Law School and co-director of the Petrie-Flom Center, suggested that one way to slow stem cell tourism could be to prosecute for child abuse when the treatment involves minors. Cohen said that though he is sympathetic with parents seeking help for their ill children, this falls under existing child-abuse and neglect statutes.

Jill Lepore, PhD, chair of Harvards History and Literature Program, came at the issues from a very different perspective. I dont have patients, Lepore said, I have characters. She said there is a kind of faith in science that draws some people to any promise of a cure for disease, no matter how specious. What fuels this false hope, she said, is one of the most dangerous elements of our culture: that we have forgotten how to die.

See the article here:
Stem cell tourism | Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI)

I am very grateful to ProgenCell for giving me back the full use of my leg. About five years ago I fractured my kneecap playing volleyball in college. My orthopedic surgeon wanted to operate but he couldnt guarantee success and even mentioned that there was a big chance that things would come out even worse than before, so I decided to let my knee heal on its own.

This has meant five years of pain and reduced mobility. During one of my periodic consultations with the orthopedic surgeon, he mentioned having read some reports in the international journals where stem cells had been used successfully. That made me curious and I started looking around the Internet to see whats available.

What I found was confusing at first and sounded contradictory. So many kinds of stem cells and used in so many different ways! Some of the clinics that I contacted wouldnt even give me the details of their treatments. Then a friend told me about ProgenCell and I was pleasantly surprised to learn how close they are to my home. I was able to visit them before deciding, and that helped me a lot.

My first visit to Tijuana was a real eye-opener. Not only has it become famous for stem cells, thanks to Bart Starrs story, but it is also a very nice place to walk around. I felt safer there than I do at home. Returning home was a breeze because ProgenCell gave me a pass to a restricted car lane just for medical tourists.

I had my first treatment a couple of months ago. It took only an hour or so, which gave me plenty of free time to visit Tijuanas colorful open-air market, its Cultural Center, and some really great restaurants. I was even able to visit an English-speaking dentist who charged me a fourth of what I would pay back home. This is not the city I used to hear about on television! My visits have been relaxing, rewarding and very interesting.

My stem cell treatment didnt make me feel like a different person right away. My doctors told me to expect that it would take some time for the cells to work their magic. The improvement was gradual but there seems to be more movement in my knee and Ive noticed recently that Im not refilling my pain prescription as often as I used to. ProgenCells solution has been like a miracle. Thank you so much, ProgenCell. I am looking forward to my next visit.

Sandra R.

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Countries colored in brown represent about 3.8 billion people, more than half the world's population. All have a permissive or flexible policy on human embryonic stem cell research and all except the U.S. have banned by law human reproductive cloning. Population: M = million.

Map Explanation

* Turkey is among several countries in which no specific regulations and guidelines have so far been defined by legal or governmental institutions for human embryonic stem cell research. Dr. Necati Findikli of Istanbul Memorial Hospital reported the first known derivation of human embryonic stem cells from donated blastocyst-stage embryos in Turkey in 2005. Reproductive Medicine Online 10 (5), 617-627, 2005.

Images and Video

Click above for discussion of The Stem Cell Dilemma on Hawaii Public Radio's public affairs program Town Square

Stem Cell Animation: RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology, Kobe, Japan.

Bingaman, The Honorable Jeff. Video of Speech on the floor of the U.S. Senate, April 11, 2007

Green, Ronald. Dartmouth News: The Ethics of Stem Cells, November 30, 2005

References

The ISSCR Guidelines for the Conduct of Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research, Feb. 1, 2007.

Countries with a permissive or flexible policy

"Stem Cells and the New 'Age of Discovery'" [PDF] AUTM Central Regional Meeting, Minneapolis, July 23, 2006 "Stem Cells, Regenerative Medicine, and Clusters of Innovation in the Asia-Pacific Region" [PDF] Stem Cells Asia 2010, Seoul, Oct. 28, 2010 "Stem Cell Research: Evolving Policy for a New Science" [PDF] University of Minnesota Stem Cell Institute, Nov. 17, 2010

A leading resource for information about stem cell policy on

Awarded a star by Kirkus Reviews for "remarkable merit"

World Stem Cell Map cited by:

Beaver, Nathan and Matthew Mulkeen. Under the Microscope: The International Legal & Business Issues Surrounding the Stem Cell Initiative. Foley & Lardner LLP, Washington D.C. BioJapan 2005. September 8, 2005. PDF [2.3 MB] Bingaman, The Honorable Jeff. Speech on the floor of the U.S. Senate , April 11, 2007

Bingaman, The Honorable Jeff. Video of Speech on the floor of the U.S. Senate, April 11, 2007 [short video]

Brito, Arturo. The Childrens Health Fund. "Stem Cell Research: The Ethics of Non-Action." September 1, 2007 PDF Caplan, Arthur. Medical College of Virginia, Oct. 11, 2004 and various stem cell academic presentations and public lectures. Website Department of Health, Catalonia, Spain. "Considerations concerning nuclear transfer," December 2005. [PDF] Dinnetz, Mattias Karlsson. "Stem Cell Research, Science Policy and the Emergence of an Academic Centre," Lund University, Sweden, 2006. Dodd David A. "Stem Cell Science & Technology: Commercialization Opportunities & Challenges," MIT Enterprise Forum of Atlanta, October 12, 2006. [podcast] Eisenstadter, Ingrid. "Blacklists and Blastocysts," Barron's, July 10, 2006. Epstein, David. "Free For All, Inside Higher Ed, July 25, 2006. Global Watch: Stem cell mission to China, Singapore and South Korea, Department of Trade & Industry, United Kingdom, September 2004. PDF Green, Ronald M. "Embryo and Fetal Research" In: The Cambridge Textbook of Bioethics, Cambridge University Press, 2008. Greenwood, Heather L. and Abdahlla S. Daar. "Regenerative Medicine" In: The Cambridge Textbook of Bioethics, Cambridge University Press, 2008. Gross, Michael. "Framework bolsters stem cell progress." Current Biology, 14 (15): R592-R593, August 10, 2004. House of Commons Library, UK Parliament, Research Paper 08/42, "Human Fertilisation and Embryology Bill," May 2, 2008 Hug, Christina. EuroStemCell Workshop - working paper, Lund University, Sweden, March 2006 [PDF] Kadereit, Suzanne. Stem Cell Research Symposium, New England School of Law. November 19, 2004. Website (ISSCR) Keane, Steve, The Case Against Blanket First Amendment Protection of Scientific Research: Articulating a More Limited Scope of Protection, Stanford Law Review: 59 (2) 505, 2006 [PDF]

Kirk, Mark, U.S. Congressman from the 10th Congressional District of Illinois. "Stem Cell Politics on Capitol Hill," BIO 2006, April 2006. PowerPoint

Knowles, Lori. The Business of Regulating Stem Cell Research, American Enterprise Institute, March 9, 2005. Stem Cell Research Symposium, New England School of Law. November 19, 2004. Website Latham, Stephen R. "Between public opinion and public policy: human embryonic stem-cell research and path-dependency." J Law Med Ethics 37(4): 800-6, 2009 Leist, Marcel et al. "The Biological and Ethical Basis of the Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells for In Vitro Test Systems or Cell Therapy," Altex 25 (3) 2008, pp. 163-190. [PDF] Levinson, Rachel. "How Policy is Made: Lessons from Current Issues," Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, November 15, 2005. PowerPoint McCabe, Linda L. and Edward R.B. McCabe.DNA: Promise and Peril, University of California Press, 2008 The Milken Institute. "Stem Cell Innovation: The Next-Frontier Economy?" California: State of the State Conference 2005: Renewing California's Global Leadership, October 31, 2005. [PDF - 4MB] UNESCO - International Bioethics Committee Report of the Working Group of IBC on Human Cloning and International Governance, September 2008 [PDF] Ott, Marie-Odile. "Human Embryo and Embryonic Stem Cell Research in France: State of the Art and Analysis ," Center for American Progress, June 15, 2007 [PDF] The Parliament of Victoria [Australia]: Therapeutic Cloning: The Infertility Treatment Amendment Bill 2007. Current Issues Brief No. 1, April 2007 [PDF] Peters, Ted. "The Stem Cell Debate in America and Around the Globe," Collegium for Advanced Studies, University of Helsinki, 20 September 2007 [Doc] Polina, Felipe. "Human Stem Cells - European National Innovation Systems and Patents," Lund University, Sweden, May 29, 2006 Salter, Brian. Evolution of the Life Science Industries: Policy and Regulation. Edinburgh, UK, February 23, 2005. Website Taylor, Stacy. Patenting the Products of Stem Cell Research: A Global Perspective. Foley & Lardner LLP, Washington D.C. BayBIO Stem Cell Program. September 19, 2005. PDF [1.1 MB] Trounson, Alan. Molecular Medicine Symposium: Stem Cell Biology and Human Disease. Salk Institute. March 18, 2005. Website. Walters, LeRoy. Public Policies on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research: An Intercultural Perspective. National Academy of Sciences Workshop, October 12, 2004. Website

World Stem Cell Map published by:

Anatolia College Model United Nations 2008. Bioethics Committee Study Guides, 2008 [PDF] Asahi Shimbun [Tokyo, Japan], Feb. 1, 2008 [PDF]

Biofutur: "Recherche sur les cellules souches," Marie-Odile Ott, January 2007 [PDF]

Burrill's BIOTECH 2007 Life Sciences: A Global Transformation Burrill's BIOTECH 2008 Life Sciences: A 20/20 Vision to 2020 CV Network (International Academy of Cardiovascular Sciences), Fall 2004

"Global Culture" Financial Times, "An industry to grow," June 25, 2009

Financial Times, "Bush's veto of embryo stem cell law marks turning point with Congress," July 20, 2006 Financial Times, "Stem cell researchers hope for $3 billion boost," Oct. 28, 2004 Hoffman, John, Stem Cells: Part 6: Medical Tourism: seeking cures around the world, Philadelphia Examiner, April 25, 2009. Issues: Stem Cells by Peggy J. Parks, For: Compact Research: Current Issues, published by ReferencePoint Press, Fall 2008 Japan Science and Technology Agency - Center for Research and Development Strategy. G-TeC Report on Stem Cell Research, 2007 [PDF - in Japanese] The Journal of Life Sciences, September 2007. Mauron, A and ME Jaconi , "Stem cell science: Current ethical and policy issues," Nature - Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. Advance online publication, July 18, 2007. [PDF] Schmickle, Sharon, "Stem cell stalemate: Minnesota authors say U.S. falling behind other nations," MinnPost.com. March 25, 2008

Sword and Shield: Dual Uses of Pathogen Research, Jan. 5, 2011. What do stem cells have to do with bioterrorism?

The Monitor Group: Joseph Fuller and Brock Reeve: "National Competitiveness in Stem Cell Science," February 2007

Nature, Dec. 22, 2005

Nature Biotechnology, July 2005 [Global Competitiveness / Stem Cell Research Map] NeuroInsights: The Neurotechnology Industry 2005 New Jersey Star-Ledger, March 20, 2005 Public Library of Science: PLoS Biology, July 2005 Public Library of Science: PLoS Medicine, May 2006

Red Herring, June 20, 2005

Red Herring, November 20, 2006

San Diego Union-Tribune, Dec. 17, 2006

Science Actualits Cit des Sciences, Paris, March 18, 2005 Science News, April 2, 2005 The Scientist, March 28, 2005. UK Trade & Investment: "Global commercialisation of UK stem cell research" [PDF], Nicola Perrin, University of Cambridge, August 2005.

Stem Cell Blogs:

California Stem Cell Report Stem Cell Network Blog Knoepfler Lab Stem Cell Blog, UC Davis School of Medicine

Maps created with GMT software Updated 1/7/13

World Stem Cell Map linked to by:

Wikipedia - Stem cell research policy National Institutes of Health - Stem Cell Information American Association for the Advancement of Science - AAAS Nature the Niche: the stem cell blog, Nature Nature Reports: Stem Cells, Nature Scientific American editors' blog International Society for Stem Cell Research - ISSCR Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology - FASEB Harvard University Stem Cell Institute Stem Cell Policy Aaron Levine, School of Public Policy, Georgia Institute of Technology Coalition for the Advancement of Medical Research -- CAMR The Globalism Institute - Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia Com Cincia Brazil International Academy of Cardiovascular Sciences [PDF] Canada StemCellsChina.com China EurActiv.com European Union Science & Dcision, Universit d'vry & Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France Bioethik Discurs Berlin, Germany Robert Koch Institut Germany RegenerationNet.com STERN BioRegion, Germany Tokugikon - Japanese Patent Office Society [PDF, in Japanese] Japan National Health Foundation - Bioethics Thailand UK Stem Cell Foundation United Kingdom Research!America Stem cell research resources Genetics Policy Institute Northwest Association for Biomedical Research NWABR Stem Cell Teacher Workshop and Educator: Selected Online Resources for Stem Cells Health Politics with Dr. Mike Magee Science Friday National Public Radio StemCellResources.org Bioscience Network in association with: the Biology Teachers Association of NJ and the National Association of Biology Teachers Results for America campaign Center for American Progress Grassroots Connection Online Neurological Advocacy CareCure Community W. M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience at Rutgers University Kirsch Foundation Medical Research California Stem Cell Report Great North Alliance Twin Cities Technology Resources Massachusetts General Hospital Indiana Center for Bioethics Michigan eLibrary Missouri Roundtable Ethical implications of biotechnological research Canadian Prescription Drugstore High School Bioethics Project University of Pennsylvania Center for Bioethics Cosmic Log by Alan Boyle MSNBC, Jan. 4, 2006 The Future of Biotechnology for Medical Applications in 2005, Governmental Issues ScenarioThinking.org Legal Restrictions for Biotech increasing in certain countries, decreasing in others ScenarioThinking.org

William Hoffman - hoffm003@umn.edu

Acknowledgments: Individuals who have provided foundational ideas, constructive criticism, encouragement or other input for the global bioscience maps include: Joseph Amato (Marshall, MN), Ivan Berkowitz (Winnipeg), William Brody (Baltimore), G. Steven Burrill (San Francisco), Arthur Caplan (Philadelphia), Rob Carlson (Seattle), Gareth Cook (Boston), Clive Cookson (London), David Cyranoski (Tokyo), David Durenberger (Minneapolis), Petr Dvorak (Czech Republic), Juan Enriquez (Rockville MD), Francis Fukuyama (Washington DC), Leo Furcht (Minneapolis), John Gearhart (Baltimore), William Gleason (Minneapolis), Ron Green (Dartmouth), Ginger Gruters (Washington, DC), Jon Hakim (Beijing), Michael Hoffman (Bloomington, MN), Suzanne Holland (Seattle), Abdul Latif Ibrahim (Malaysia), Marisa Jaconi (Geneva), William Johnson (Boston), Louis Johnston (Collegeville MN), Suzanne Kadereit (Singapore), Naoko Kimura (Bangkok), Lori Knowles (Edmonton), Zack Lynch (San Francisco), Stephen Minger (London), Martin Murphy (Durham NC), Thomas Murray (New York), William Neaves (Kansas City MO), Marie-Odile Ott (Paris), Robert Paarlberg (Wellesley, MA), Nicola Perrin (Cambridge UK), Douglas Petty (Minneapolis/St. Paul), Michael Porter (Boston), Walter Powell (Stanford), Clyde Prestowitz (Washington DC), John Rennie (New York), Kate Rubin (Minneapolis/St. Paul), G. Edward Schuh (Minneapolis/St. Paul), Lee Silver (Princeton), Peter Singer (Toronto), Doug Sipp (Kobe, Japan), Carl Sundberg (Stockholm), William Testa (Chicago), Alan Trounson (Melbourne), LeRoy Walters (Washington DC), Steven Weber (Berkeley), Sarah Youngerman (Minneapolis) and Laurie Zoloth (Chicago).

Disclaimer: This work is a communications project of William Hoffman, a non-faculty employee of the University of Minnesota, and not the University of Minnesota. It is meant to help inform public discussion of stem cell research and human development.

Awarded a star by Kirkus Reviews for "remarkable merit"

Foreword by Brock Reeve Preface Prologue: Into the Cave Agents of Hope Architects of Development Challengers of Ethics Barometers of Politics Objects of Competition Harbingers of Destruction Epilogue: Beyond the Darkness Bibliography Timeline Glossary Index

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Stem Cell Policy: World Stem Cell Map - MBBNet

It is astonishing how the cosmetic industry uses medical discoveries and put these formulas into skin cream jars.

In 2009 the American company Voss laboratories was the first that introduced stem cell active ingredients into a cosmetic product. Due to the fact that the company didnt reveal their secret ingredients, it created a worldwide rumor that the company might be using human stem cells.

The world started to question if this would be ethical and safe.

Coming from the medical stand point: with human stem cells you can actually build and rebuild human organs but also carcinogenic cell. For that reason it created great concerns.

Now days many trendsetting companies producing stem cell creams and serums that dont use human stem cells

Stem cells are a class of undifferentiated cells that are able to differentiate into specialized cell types

Adult or somatic stem cells exist throughout the body after embryonic development and are found inside of different types of tissue. These stem cells have been found in tissues such as the brain, bone marrow, blood, blood vessels, skeletal muscles, liver, and the Skin ( basal layer and fat layer) . They remain in a quiescent or non-dividing state for years until activated by disease or tissue injury.

Adult stem cells can divide ( copy) or self-renew indefinitely, enabling them to generate a range of cell types from the originating organ or even regenerates the entire original organ.

Plant Stem Cells benefits human skin.

Stem cells from a rare red grape variety provide the basis for Israel based company On-Macabim latest skin care ingredient.

This variety is one of the few red grapes that have red flesh and juice the majority have red skin but white flesh and juice which is due to the high quantity of anthocyanins in the fruit.

The anthocyanins, also present in the flesh, leading to higher antioxidant levels overall.

The technology was developed last year and allows to extract stem cells from the plant which can then be formulated into a cosmetic ingredient to help protect the stem cells in human skin.

To harvest the stem cells the company first induces a wound in the plant which causes the surrounding cells to dedifferentiate (turn back into stem cells) and form a wound healing tissue called a callus.

Once the wound has healed these cells can differentiate again and build new tissue

According to On-macabim, these plant stem cells contain components and epigenetic factors that can protect human skin stem cells form UV radiation, inflammation, oxidative stress, neutralize free radicals and reverse the effects of photoaging.

Stem cells are found in the epidermal layer of the skin and are involved in skin growth and regeneration. If they are harmed by UV radiation,

their power to regenerate will be jeopardized.

Grape stem cells have the ability to promote healthy skin proliferation.

Grape Stem Cells Counteract Negative

Effects of UV Radiation on

Skin Stem Cells

In an in-vitro study, skin stem cells were treated with and without

the Grape Stem Cells.

Some were exposed to UVA+UVB-light; others were unexposed.

CFE was determined in each case.

Results confirmed that cells treated with the Grape Stem Cells increased

the CFE of the skin stem cells. A 58% decrease in CFE was observed

when skin stem cells were exposed to UV radiation (control).

However, the presence of the Grape Stem Cells counteracted the negative effect of UV radiation on the cells as the CFE remained at the same level when exposed to the UV radiation.

Therefore, the Grape Stem Cells protect skin stem cells against UV stress.

Benefits of the Grape Stem Cell products

Regenerative, repair and rejuvenating properties

Comments are closed.

Link:
Stem cell and skin care. | Esthetics Association Florida

Dr Shifrin-Douglas is Board Certified Endocrinologist with more than 10 years of clinical experience, including 7 years of Academic Experience as an Assistant Clinical Professor of Endocrinology at Penn State Milton S Hershey Medical Center.

Dr Shifrin-Douglas has been selected as CASTLE CONNOLLY TOP DOCTOR in ENDOCRINOLOGY for 2015

Affiliations: -Jersey Shore University Medical Center -Monmouth Medical Center- press release

Providing consultation and treatment for an adults with following Endocrine problems:

Thyroid Gland:

In people with Hashimoto's hypothyroidism occurs at a rate of 4.3% per year versus 2.6% per year who do not have Hashimoto's. Evaluation for Hashimoto's should be considered when evaluating patients with recurrent miscarriage, with or without infertility.

________________

Parathyroid Glands

(abnormal calcium level):

Pituitary Gland:

Adrenal glands:

Bone Metabolism:

____________________

Genetic Endocrine Syndroms:

Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1 (MEN 1)

Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type2A and 2B(MEN 2A and MEN 2B)

Familial Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma Syndrome (FMTC)

Familial Hypocalciuric Hypercalcemia (FHH)

Pregnancy and Infertility

Overt untreated hypothyroidism during pregnancy may adversely affect maternal and fetal outcomes. These adverse outcomes include increased incidences of spontaneous miscarriage, preterm delivery, preeclampsia, maternal hypertension, postpartum hemorrhage, low birth weight and stillbirth, and impaired intellectual and psychomotor development of the fetus.

Women with positive TPOAb may have an increased risk for first trimester miscarriage, preterm delivery, and for offspring with impaired cognitive development.

It is important to have normal thyroid function prior to conceiving.

Requirements of thyroid hormone increase during pregnancy.

When a woman with hypothyroidism becomes pregnant, the dosage of L-thyroxine should be increased as soon as possible.

"Treatment with L-thyroxine should be considered in women of childbearing age with normal serum TSH levels when they are pregnant or planning a pregnancy, including assisted reproduction in the immediate future, if they have or have had positive levels of serum TPOAb, particularly when there is a history of miscarriage or past history of hypothyroidism."

"Women of childbearing age who are pregnant or planning a pregnancy, including assisted reproduction in the immediate future, should be treated with L-thyroxine if they have or have had positive levels of serum TPOAb and their TSH is greater than 2.5 mIU/L."

________________

It would be important to be evaluated for Endocrine cause of obesity.

Did you know that several endocrine abnormalities, including Hypothyroidism, Cushings, Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), Subclinical Hypothyroidism are considered as causative factors of obesity?

Prevalence in obesity of Cushings 1%, metabolic syndrome 40%, PCOS 12%, Hypothyroidism 5%, Hashimoto's thyroiditis 11%.

Read more from the original source:
Endocrinology Center of New Jersey, Dr Svetlana Shifrin ...

knowledge center home stem cell research all about stem cells what are stem cells?

Stem cells are a class of undifferentiated cells that are able to differentiate into specialized cell types. Commonly, stem cells come from two main sources:

Both types are generally characterized by their potency, or potential to differentiate into different cell types (such as skin, muscle, bone, etc.).

Adult or somatic stem cells exist throughout the body after embryonic development and are found inside of different types of tissue. These stem cells have been found in tissues such as the brain, bone marrow, blood, blood vessels, skeletal muscles, skin, and the liver. They remain in a quiescent or non-dividing state for years until activated by disease or tissue injury.

Adult stem cells can divide or self-renew indefinitely, enabling them to generate a range of cell types from the originating organ or even regenerate the entire original organ. It is generally thought that adult stem cells are limited in their ability to differentiate based on their tissue of origin, but there is some evidence to suggest that they can differentiate to become other cell types.

Embryonic stem cells are derived from a four- or five-day-old human embryo that is in the blastocyst phase of development. The embryos are usually extras that have been created in IVF (in vitro fertilization) clinics where several eggs are fertilized in a test tube, but only one is implanted into a woman.

Sexual reproduction begins when a male's sperm fertilizes a female's ovum (egg) to form a single cell called a zygote. The single zygote cell then begins a series of divisions, forming 2, 4, 8, 16 cells, etc. After four to six days - before implantation in the uterus - this mass of cells is called a blastocyst. The blastocyst consists of an inner cell mass (embryoblast) and an outer cell mass (trophoblast). The outer cell mass becomes part of the placenta, and the inner cell mass is the group of cells that will differentiate to become all the structures of an adult organism. This latter mass is the source of embryonic stem cells - totipotent cells (cells with total potential to develop into any cell in the body).

In a normal pregnancy, the blastocyst stage continues until implantation of the embryo in the uterus, at which point the embryo is referred to as a fetus. This usually occurs by the end of the 10th week of gestation after all major organs of the body have been created.

However, when extracting embryonic stem cells, the blastocyst stage signals when to isolate stem cells by placing the "inner cell mass" of the blastocyst into a culture dish containing a nutrient-rich broth. Lacking the necessary stimulation to differentiate, they begin to divide and replicate while maintaining their ability to become any cell type in the human body. Eventually, these undifferentiated cells can be stimulated to create specialized cells.

Stem cells are either extracted from adult tissue or from a dividing zygote in a culture dish. Once extracted, scientists place the cells in a controlled culture that prohibits them from further specializing or differentiating but usually allows them to divide and replicate. The process of growing large numbers of embryonic stem cells has been easier than growing large numbers of adult stem cells, but progress is being made for both cell types.

Once stem cells have been allowed to divide and propagate in a controlled culture, the collection of healthy, dividing, and undifferentiated cells is called a stem cell line. These stem cell lines are subsequently managed and shared among researchers. Once under control, the stem cells can be stimulated to specialize as directed by a researcher - a process known as directed differentiation. Embryonic stem cells are able to differentiate into more cell types than adult stem cells.

Stem cells are categorized by their potential to differentiate into other types of cells. Embryonic stem cells are the most potent since they must become every type of cell in the body. The full classification includes:

Embryonic stem cells are considered pluripotent instead of totipotent because they do not have the ability to become part of the extra-embryonic membranes or the placenta.

A video on how stem cells work and develop.

Although there is not complete agreement among scientists of how to identify stem cells, most tests are based on making sure that stem cells are undifferentiated and capable of self-renewal. Tests are often conducted in the laboratory to check for these properties.

One way to identify stem cells in a lab, and the standard procedure for testing bone marrow or hematopoietic stem cell (HSC), is by transplanting one cell to save an individual without HSCs. If the stem cell produces new blood and immune cells, it demonstrates its potency.

Clonogenic assays (a laboratory procedure) can also be employed in vitro to test whether single cells can differentiate and self-renew. Researchers may also inspect cells under a microscope to see if they are healthy and undifferentiated or they may examine chromosomes.

To test whether human embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, scientists allow the cells to differentiate spontaneously in cell culture, manipulate the cells so they will differentiate to form specific cell types, or inject the cells into an immunosuppressed mouse to test for the formation of a teratoma (a benign tumor containing a mixture of differentiated cells).

Scientists and researchers are interested in stem cells for several reasons. Although stem cells do not serve any one function, many have the capacity to serve any function after they are instructed to specialize. Every cell in the body, for example, is derived from first few stem cells formed in the early stages of embryological development. Therefore, stem cells extracted from embryos can be induced to become any desired cell type. This property makes stem cells powerful enough to regenerate damaged tissue under the right conditions.

Tissue regeneration is probably the most important possible application of stem cell research. Currently, organs must be donated and transplanted, but the demand for organs far exceeds supply. Stem cells could potentially be used to grow a particular type of tissue or organ if directed to differentiate in a certain way. Stem cells that lie just beneath the skin, for example, have been used to engineer new skin tissue that can be grafted on to burn victims.

A team of researchers from Massachusetts General Hospital reported in PNAS Early Edition (July 2013 issue) that they were able to create blood vessels in laboratory mice using human stem cells.

The scientists extracted vascular precursor cells derived from human-induced pluripotent stem cells from one group of adults with type 1 diabetes as well as from another group of healthy adults. They were then implanted onto the surface of the brains of the mice.

Within two weeks of implanting the stem cells, networks of blood-perfused vessels had been formed - they lasted for 280 days. These new blood vessels were as good as the adjacent natural ones.

The authors explained that using stem cells to repair or regenerate blood vessels could eventually help treat human patients with cardiovascular and vascular diseases.

Additionally, replacement cells and tissues may be used to treat brain disease such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's by replenishing damaged tissue, bringing back the specialized brain cells that keep unneeded muscles from moving. Embryonic stem cells have recently been directed to differentiate into these types of cells, and so treatments are promising.

Healthy heart cells developed in a laboratory may one day be transplanted into patients with heart disease, repopulating the heart with healthy tissue. Similarly, people with type I diabetes may receive pancreatic cells to replace the insulin-producing cells that have been lost or destroyed by the patient's own immune system. The only current therapy is a pancreatic transplant, and it is unlikely to occur due to a small supply of pancreases available for transplant.

Adult hematopoietic stem cells found in blood and bone marrow have been used for years to treat diseases such as leukemia, sickle cell anemia, and other immunodeficiencies. These cells are capable of producing all blood cell types, such as red blood cells that carry oxygen to white blood cells that fight disease. Difficulties arise in the extraction of these cells through the use of invasive bone marrow transplants. However hematopoietic stem cells have also been found in the umbilical cord and placenta. This has led some scientists to call for an umbilical cord blood bank to make these powerful cells more easily obtainable and to decrease the chances of a body's rejecting therapy.

Another reason why stem cell research is being pursued is to develop new drugs. Scientists could measure a drug's effect on healthy, normal tissue by testing the drug on tissue grown from stem cells rather than testing the drug on human volunteers.

The debates surrounding stem cell research primarily are driven by methods concerning embryonic stem cell research. It was only in 1998 that researchers from the University of Wisconsin-Madison extracted the first human embryonic stem cells that were able to be kept alive in the laboratory. The main critique of this research is that it required the destruction of a human blastocyst. That is, a fertilized egg was not given the chance to develop into a fully-developed human.

The core of this debate - similar to debates about abortion, for example - centers on the question, "When does life begin?" Many assert that life begins at conception, when the egg is fertilized. It is often argued that the embryo deserves the same status as any other full grown human. Therefore, destroying it (removing the blastocyst to extract stem cells) is akin to murder. Others, in contrast, have identified different points in gestational development that mark the beginning of life - after the development of certain organs or after a certain time period.

People also take issue with the creation of chimeras. A chimera is an organism that has both human and animal cells or tissues. Often in stem cell research, human cells are inserted into animals (like mice or rats) and allowed to develop. This creates the opportunity for researchers to see what happens when stem cells are implanted. Many people, however, object to the creation of an organism that is "part human".

The stem cell debate has risen to the highest level of courts in several countries. Production of embryonic stem cell lines is illegal in Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, and Ireland, but permitted in Finland, Greece, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the UK. In the United States, it is not illegal to work with or create embryonic stem cell lines. However, the debate in the US is about funding, and it is in fact illegal for federal funds to be used to research stem cell lines that were created after August 2001.

Medical News Today is a leading resource for the latest headlines on stem cell research. So, check out our stem cell research news section. You can also sign up to our weekly or daily newsletters to ensure that you stay up-to-date with the latest news.

This stem cells information section was written by Peter Crosta for Medical News Today in September 2008 and was last updated on 19 July 2013. The contents may not be re-produced in any way without the permission of Medical News Today.

Disclaimer: This informational section on Medical News Today is regularly reviewed and updated, and provided for general information purposes only. The materials contained within this guide do not constitute medical or pharmaceutical advice, which should be sought from qualified medical and pharmaceutical advisers.

Please note that although you may feel free to cite and quote this article, it may not be re-produced in full without the permission of Medical News Today. For further details, please view our full terms of use

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The need for the discovery and development of innovative technologies to improve the delivery of therapeutic and diagnostic agents in the body is widely recognized. The next generation therapies must be able to deliver drugs, therapeutic proteins and recombinant DNA to focal areas of disease or to tumors to maximize clinical benefit while limiting untoward side effects. The use of nanoscale technologies to design novel drug delivery systems and devices is a rapidly developing area of biomedical research that promises breakthrough advances in therapeutics and diagnostics.

Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine (CDDN) serves to unify existing diverse technical and scientific expertise in biomedical and material science research at the University of Nebraska thereby creating a world class interdisciplinary drug delivery and nanomedicine program. This is realized by integrating established expertise in drug delivery, gene therapy, neuroscience, pathology, immunology, pharmacology, vaccine therapy, cancer biology, polymer science and nanotechnology at the University of Nebraska Medical Center (UNMC), the University of Nebraska at Lincoln (UNL) and Creighton University.

CDDNs vision is to improve health by enhancing the efficacy and safety of new and existing therapeutic agents, diagnostic agents and genes through the discovery and application of innovative methods of drug delivery and nanotechnology. CDDNs mission is to discover and apply knowledge to design, develop and evaluate novel approaches to improve the delivery of therapeutic agents, diagnostic agents and genes.

The COBRE Nebraska Center for Nanomedicine is supported by the National Institute of General Medical Science(NIGMS) grant 2P20 GM103480-07.

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Center for Drug Delivery and Nanomedicine (CDDN)

Bookshelf

A collection of biomedical books that can be searched directly or from linked data in other NCBI databases. The collection includes biomedical textbooks, other scientific titles, genetic resources such as GeneReviews, and NCBI help manuals.

A resource to provide a public, tracked record of reported relationships between human variation and observed health status with supporting evidence. Related information intheNIH Genetic Testing Registry (GTR),MedGen,Gene,OMIM,PubMedand other sources is accessible through hyperlinks on the records.

An archive and distribution center for the description and results of studies which investigate the interaction of genotype and phenotype. These studies include genome-wide association (GWAS), medical resequencing, molecular diagnostic assays, as well as association between genotype and non-clinical traits.

An open, publicly accessible platform where the HLA community can submit, edit, view, and exchange data related to the human major histocompatibility complex. It consists of an interactive Alignment Viewer for HLA and related genes, an MHC microsatellite database, a sequence interpretation site for Sequencing Based Typing (SBT), and a Primer/Probe database.

A searchable database of genes, focusing on genomes that have been completely sequenced and that have an active research community to contribute gene-specific data. Information includes nomenclature, chromosomal localization, gene products and their attributes (e.g., protein interactions), associated markers, phenotypes, interactions, and links to citations, sequences, variation details, maps, expression reports, homologs, protein domain content, and external databases.

A collection of expert-authored, peer-reviewed disease descriptions on the NCBI Bookshelf that apply genetic testing to the diagnosis, management, and genetic counseling of patients and families with specific inherited conditions.

Summaries of information for selected genetic disorders with discussions of the underlying mutation(s) and clinical features, as well as links to related databases and organizations.

A voluntary registry of genetic tests and laboratories, with detailed information about the tests such as what is measured and analytic and clinical validity. GTR also is a nexus for information about genetic conditions and provides context-specific links to a variety of resources, including practice guidelines, published literature, and genetic data/information. The initial scope of GTR includes single gene tests for Mendelian disorders, as well as arrays, panels and pharmacogenetic tests.

A database of known interactions of HIV-1 proteins with proteins from human hosts. It provides annotated bibliographies of published reports of protein interactions, with links to the corresponding PubMed records and sequence data.

A compilation of data from the NIAID Influenza Genome Sequencing Project and GenBank. It provides tools for flu sequence analysis, annotation and submission to GenBank. This resource also has links to other flu sequence resources, and publications and general information about flu viruses.

A portal to information about medical genetics. MedGen includes term lists from multiple sources and organizes them into concept groupings and hierarchies. Links are also provided to information related to those concepts in the NIH Genetic Testing Registry (GTR), ClinVar,Gene, OMIM, PubMed, and other sources.

A database of human genes and genetic disorders. NCBI maintains current content and continues to support its searching and integration with other NCBI databases. However, OMIM now has a new home at omim.org, and users are directed to this site for full record displays.

A database of citations and abstracts for biomedical literature from MEDLINE and additional life science journals. Links are provided when full text versions of the articles are available via PubMed Central (described below) or other websites.

A digital archive of full-text biomedical and life sciences journal literature, including clinical medicine and public health.

A collection of clinical effectiveness reviews and other resources to help consumers and clinicians use and understand clinical research results. These are drawn from the NCBI Bookshelf and PubMed, including published systematic reviews from organizations such as the Agency for Health Care Research and Quality, The Cochrane Collaboration, and others (see complete listing). Links to full text articles are provided when available.

A collection of resources specifically designed to support the research of retroviruses, including a genotyping tool that uses the BLAST algorithm to identify the genotype of a query sequence; an alignment tool for global alignment of multiple sequences; an HIV-1 automatic sequence annotation tool; and annotated maps of numerous retroviruses viewable in GenBank, FASTA, and graphic formats, with links to associated sequence records.

A summary of data for the SARS coronavirus (CoV), including links to the most recent sequence data and publications, links to other SARS related resources, and a pre-computed alignment of genome sequences from various isolates.

An extension of the Influenza Virus Resource to other organisms, providing an interface to download sequence sets of selected viruses, analysis tools, including virus-specific BLAST pages, and genome annotation pipelines.

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The medical genetics of Jews is the study, screening, and treatment of genetic disorders more common in particular Jewish populations than in the population as a whole.[1] The genetics of Ashkenazi Jews have been particularly well-studied, resulting in the discovery of many genetic disorders associated with this ethnic group. In contrast, the medical genetics of Sephardic Jews and Mizrahi Jews are more complicated, since they are more genetically diverse and consequently no genetic disorders are more common in these groups as a whole; instead, they tend to have the genetic diseases common in their various countries of origin.[1][2] Several organizations, such as Dor Yeshorim,[3] offer screening for Ashkenazi genetic diseases, and these screening programs have had a significant impact, in particular by reducing the number of cases of TaySachs disease.[4]

Different ethnic groups tend to suffer from different rates of hereditary diseases, with some being more common, and some less common. Hereditary diseases, particularly hemophilia, were recognized early in Jewish history, even being described in the Talmud.[5] However, the scientific study of hereditary disease in Jewish populations was initially hindered by scientific racism, which believed in racial supremacism.[6][7]

However, modern studies on the genetics of particular ethnic groups have the tightly defined purpose of avoiding the birth of children with genetic diseases, or identifying people at particular risk of developing a disease in the future.[6] Consequently, the Jewish community has been very supportive of modern genetic testing programs, although this unusually high degree of cooperation has raised concerns that it might lead to the false perception that Jews are more susceptible to genetic diseases than other groups of people.[5]

However, most populations contain hundreds of alleles that could potentially cause disease and most people are heterozygotes for one or two recessive alleles that would be lethal in a homozygote.[8] Although the overall frequency of disease-causing alleles does not vary much between populations, the practice of consanguineous marriage (marriage between second cousins or closer relatives) is common in some Jewish communities, which produces a small increase in the number of children with congenital defects.[9]

According to Daphna Birenbaum Carmeli at the University of Haifa, Jewish populations have been studied more thoroughly than most other human populations because:[10]

The result is a form of ascertainment bias. This has sometimes created an impression that Jews are more susceptible to genetic disease than other populations. Carmeli writes, "Jews are over-represented in human genetic literature, particularly in mutation-related contexts."[10] Another factor that may aid genetic research in this community is that Jewish culture results in excellent medical care, which is coupled to a strong interest in the community's history and demography.[11]

This set of advantages have led to Ashkenazi Jews in particular being used in many genetic studies, not just in the study of genetic diseases. For example, a series of publications on Ashkenazi centenarians established their longevity was strongly inherited and associated with lower rates of age-related diseases.[12] This "healthy aging" phenotype may be due to higher levels of telomerase in these individuals.[13]

The most detailed genetic analysis study of Ashkenazi was published in September 2014 by Shai Carmon and his team at Columbia University. The results of the detailed study show that today's 10 million Ashkenai Jews descend from a population only 350 individuals who lived about 600-800 years ago. That population derived from both Europe and the Middle East. [14]There is evidence that the population bottleneck may have allowed deleterious alleles to become more prevalent in the population due to genetic drift.[15] As a result, this group has been particularly intensively studied, so many mutations have been identified as common in Ashkenazis.[16] Of these diseases, many also occur in other Jewish groups and in non-Jewish populations, although the specific mutation which causes the disease may vary between populations. For example, two different mutations in the glucocerebrosidase gene causes Gaucher's disease in Ashkenazis, which is their most common genetic disease, but only one of these mutations is found in non-Jewish groups.[4] A few diseases are unique to this group; for example, familial dysautonomia is almost unknown in other populations.[4]

TaySachs disease, a fatal illness of children that causes mental deterioration prior to death, was historically more prevalent among Ashkenazi Jews,[18] although high levels of the disease are also found in some Pennsylvania Dutch, southern Louisiana Cajun, and eastern Quebec French Canadian populations.[19] Since the 1970s, however, proactive genetic testing has been quite effective in eliminating TaySachs from the Ashkenazi Jewish population.[20]

Gaucher's disease, in which lipids accumulate in inappropriate locations, occurs most frequently among Ashkenazi Jews;[21] the mutation is carried by roughly one in every 15 Ashkenazi Jews, compared to one in 100 of the general American population.[22] Gaucher's disease can cause brain damage and seizures, but these effects are not usually present in the form manifested among Ashkenazi Jews; while sufferers still bruise easily, and it can still potentially rupture the spleen, it generally has only a minor impact on life expectancy.

Ashkenazi Jews are also highly affected by other lysosomal storage diseases, particularly in the form of lipid storage disorders. Compared to other ethnic groups, they more frequently act as carriers of mucolipidosis[23] and NiemannPick disease,[24] the latter of which can prove fatal.

The occurrence of several lysosomal storage disorders in the same population suggests the alleles responsible might have conferred some selective advantage in the past.[25] This would be similar to the hemoglobin allele which is responsible for sickle-cell disease, but solely in people with two copies; those with just one copy of the allele have a sickle cell trait and gain partial immunity to malaria as a result. This effect is called heterozygote advantage.[26]

Some of these disorders may have become common in this population due to selection for high levels of intelligence (see Ashkenazi intelligence).[27][28] However, other research suggests no difference is found between the frequency of this group of diseases and other genetic diseases in Ashkenazis, which is evidence against any specific selectivity towards lysosomal disorders.[29]

Familial dysautonomia (RileyDay syndrome), which causes vomiting, speech problems, an inability to cry, and false sensory perception, is almost exclusive to Ashkenazi Jews;[30] Ashkenazi Jews are almost 100 times more likely to carry the disease than anyone else.[31]

Diseases inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern often occur in endogamous populations. Among Ashkenazi Jews, a higher incidence of specific genetic disorders and hereditary diseases have been verified, including:

In contrast to the Ashkenazi population, Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews are much more divergent groups, with ancestors from Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Italy, Libya, the Balkans, Iran, Iraq, India, and Yemen, with specific genetic disorders found in each regional group, or even in specific subpopulations in these regions.[1]

One of the first genetic testing programs to identify heterozygote carriers of a genetic disorder was a program aimed at eliminating TaySachs disease. This program began in 1970, and over one million people have now been screened for the mutation.[46] Identifying carriers and counseling couples on reproductive options have had a large impact on the incidence of the disease, with a decrease from 4050 per year worldwide to only four or five per year.[4] Screening programs now test for several genetic disorders in Jews, although these focus on the Ashkenazi Jews, since other Jewish groups cannot be given a single set of tests for a common set of disorders.[2] In the USA, these screening programs have been widely accepted by the Ashkenazi community, and have greatly reduced the frequency of the disorders.[47]

Prenatal testing for several genetic diseases is offered as commercial panels for Ashkenazi couples by both CIGNA and Quest Diagnostics. The CIGNA panel is available for testing for parental/preconception screening or following chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis and tests for Bloom syndrome, Canavan disease, cystic fibrosis, familial dysautonomia, Fanconi anemia, Gaucher disease, mucolipidosis IV, Neimann-Pick disease type A, Tay-Sachs disease, and torsion dystonia. The Quest panel is for parental/preconception testing and tests for Bloom syndrome, Canavan disease, cystic fibrosis, familial dysautonomia, Fanconi anemia group C, Gaucher disease, Neimann-Pick disease types A and B and Tay-Sachs disease.

The official recommendations of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists is that Ashkenazi individuals be offered screening for Tay Sachs, Canavan, cystic fibrosis, and familial dysautonomia as part of routine obstetrical care.[48]

In the orthodox community, an organization called Dor Yeshorim carries out anonymous genetic screening of couples before marriage to reduce the risk of children with genetic diseases being born.[49] The program educates young people on medical genetics and screens school-aged children for any disease genes. These results are then entered into an anonymous database, identified only by a unique ID number given to the person who was tested. If two people are considering getting married, they call the organization and tell them their ID numbers. The organization then tells them if they are genetically compatible. It is not divulged if one member is a carrier, so as to protect the carrier and his or her family from stigmatization.[49] However, this program has been criticized for exerting social pressure on people to be tested, and for screening for a broad range of recessive genes, including disorders such as Gaucher's disease.[3]

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Medical genetics of Jews - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Gregor Johann Mendel (20 July 1822[1] 6 January 1884) was a German-speaking Moravian[2] scientist and Augustinian friar who gained posthumous fame as the founder of the modern science of genetics. Though farmers had known for centuries that crossbreeding of animals and plants could favor certain desirable traits, Mendel's pea plant experiments conducted between 1856 and 1863 established many of the rules of heredity, now referred to as the laws of Mendelian inheritance.

Mendel worked with seven characteristics of pea plants: plant height, pod shape and color, seed shape and color, and flower position and color. With seed color, he showed that when a yellow pea and a green pea were bred together their offspring plant was always yellow. However, in the next generation of plants, the green peas reappeared at a ratio of 1:3. To explain this phenomenon, Mendel coined the terms recessive and dominant in reference to certain traits. (In the preceding example, green peas are recessive and yellow peas are dominant.) He published his work in 1866, demonstrating the actions of invisible factorsnow called genesin providing for visible traits in predictable ways.

The profound significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the turn of the 20th century (more than three decades later) with the independent rediscovery of these laws.[3]Erich von Tschermak, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and William Jasper Spillman independently verified several of Mendel's experimental findings, ushering in the modern age of genetics.

Johann Mendel was born into an ethnic German family in Heinzendorf bei Odrau, Moravian-Silesian border, Austrian Empire (now Hynice, Czech Republic). He was the son of Anton and Rosine (Schwirtlich) Mendel, and had one older sister, Veronika, and one younger, Theresia. They lived and worked on a farm which had been owned by the Mendel family for at least 130 years.[4] During his childhood, Mendel worked as a gardener and studied beekeeping. Later, as a young man, he attended gymnasium in Opava. He had to take four months off during his gymnasium studies due to illness. From 1840 to 1843, he studied practical and theoretical philosophy and physics at the University of Olomouc Faculty of Philosophy, taking another year off because of illness. He also struggled financially to pay for his studies, and Theresia gave him her dowry. Later he helped support her three sons, two of whom became doctors.

He became a friar because it enabled him to obtain an education without having to pay for it himself. He was given the name Gregor when he joined the Augustinian friars.)

When Mendel entered the Faculty of Philosophy, the Department of Natural History and Agriculture was headed by Johann Karl Nestler who conducted extensive research of hereditary traits of plants and animals, especially sheep. Upon recommendation of his physics teacher Friedrich Franz,[7] Mendel entered the Augustinian St Thomas's Abbey and began his training as a priest. Born Johann Mendel, he took the name Gregor upon entering religious life. Mendel worked as a substitute high school teacher. In 1850 he failed the oral part, the last of three parts, of his exams to become a certified high school teacher. In 1851 he was sent to the University of Vienna to study under the sponsorship of Abbot C. F. Napp so that he could get more formal education. At Vienna, his professor of physics was Christian Doppler.[9] Mendel returned to his abbey in 1853 as a teacher, principally of physics. In 1856 he took the exam to become a certified teacher and again failed the oral part.In 1867 he replaced Napp as abbot of the monastery.[10]

After he was elevated as abbot in 1868, his scientific work largely ended, as Mendel became consumed with his increased administrative responsibilities, especially a dispute with the civil government over their attempt to impose special taxes on religious institutions.[11] Mendel died on 6 January 1884, at the age of 61, in Brno, Moravia, Austria-Hungary (now Czech Republic), from chronic nephritis. Czech composer Leo Janek played the organ at his funeral. After his death, the succeeding abbot burned all papers in Mendel's collection, to mark an end to the disputes over taxation.[12]

Gregor Mendel, who is known as the "father of modern genetics", was inspired by both his professors at the University of Olomouc (Friedrich Franz and Johann Karl Nestler) and his colleagues at the monastery (such as Franz Diebl) to study variation in plants. In 1854 Napp authorized Mendel for the investigation, who conducted his study in the monastery's 2 hectares (4.9 acres) experimental garden,[13] which was originally planted by Napp in 1830.[10] Unlike Nestler, who studied hereditary traits in sheep, Mendel focused on plants. After initial experiments with pea plants, Mendel settled on studying seven traits that seemed to inherit independently of other traits: seed shape, flower color, seed coat tint, pod shape, unripe pod color, flower location, and plant height. He first focused on seed shape, which was either angular or round. Between 1856 and 1863 Mendel cultivated and tested some 29,000 pea plants (Pisum sativum). This study showed that one in four pea plants had purebred recessive alleles, two out of four were hybrid and one out of four were purebred dominant. His experiments led him to make two generalizations, the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment, which later came to be known as Mendel's Laws of Inheritance.

Mendel presented his paper, Versuche ber Pflanzenhybriden (Experiments on Plant Hybridization), at two meetings of the Natural History Society of Brno in Moravia on 8 February and 8 March 1865. It was received favorably and generated reports in several local newspapers.[16] When Mendel's paper was published in 1866 in Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereins Brnn,[17] it was seen as essentially about hybridization rather than inheritance and had little impact and was cited about three times over the next thirty-five years. His paper was criticized at the time, but is now considered a seminal work.[18] Notably, Charles Darwin was unaware of Mendel's paper, and is envisaged that if he had, genetics would have been a much older science.[19][20]

Mendel began his studies on heredity using mice. He was at St. Thomas's Abbey but his bishop did not like one of his friars studying animal sex, so Mendel switched to plants. Mendel also bred bees in a bee house that was built for him, using bee hives that he designed.[22] He also studied astronomy and meteorology,[10] founding the 'Austrian Meteorological Society' in 1865.[9] The majority of his published works were related to meteorology.[9]

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This article is about the organ. For the human eye, see Human eye.

Eyes are the organs of vision. They detect light and convert it into electro-chemical impulses in neurons. In higher organisms, the eye is a complex optical system which collects light from the surrounding environment, regulates its intensity through a diaphragm, focuses it through an adjustable assembly of lenses to form an image, converts this image into a set of electrical signals, and transmits these signals to the brain through complex neural pathways that connect the eye via the optic nerve to the visual cortex and other areas of the brain. Eyes with resolving power have come in ten fundamentally different forms, and 96% of animal species possess a complex optical system.[1] Image-resolving eyes are present in molluscs, chordates and arthropods.[2]

The simplest "eyes", such as those in microorganisms, do nothing but detect whether the surroundings are light or dark, which is sufficient for the entrainment of circadian rhythms.[3] From more complex eyes, retinal photosensitive ganglion cells send signals along the retinohypothalamic tract to the suprachiasmatic nuclei to effect circadian adjustment and to the pretectal nuclei to control the pupillary light reflex.

Complex eyes can distinguish shapes and colours. The visual fields of many organisms, especially predators, involve large areas of binocular vision to improve depth perception. In other organisms, eyes are located so as to maximise the field of view, such as in rabbits and horses, which have monocular vision.

The first proto-eyes evolved among animals 600 million years ago about the time of the Cambrian explosion.[4] The last common ancestor of animals possessed the biochemical toolkit necessary for vision, and more advanced eyes have evolved in 96% of animal species in six of the ~35[a] main phyla.[1] In most vertebrates and some molluscs, the eye works by allowing light to enter and project onto a light-sensitive panel of cells, known as the retina, at the rear of the eye. The cone cells (for colour) and the rod cells (for low-light contrasts) in the retina detect and convert light into neural signals for vision. The visual signals are then transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve. Such eyes are typically roughly spherical, filled with a transparent gel-like substance called the vitreous humour, with a focusing lens and often an iris; the relaxing or tightening of the muscles around the iris change the size of the pupil, thereby regulating the amount of light that enters the eye,[5] and reducing aberrations when there is enough light.[6] The eyes of most cephalopods, fish, amphibians and snakes have fixed lens shapes, and focusing vision is achieved by telescoping the lenssimilar to how a camera focuses.[7]

Compound eyes are found among the arthropods and are composed of many simple facets which, depending on the details of anatomy, may give either a single pixelated image or multiple images, per eye. Each sensor has its own lens and photosensitive cell(s). Some eyes have up to 28,000 such sensors, which are arranged hexagonally, and which can give a full 360 field of vision. Compound eyes are very sensitive to motion. Some arthropods, including many Strepsiptera, have compound eyes of only a few facets, each with a retina capable of creating an image, creating vision. With each eye viewing a different thing, a fused image from all the eyes is produced in the brain, providing very different, high-resolution images.

Possessing detailed hyperspectral colour vision, the Mantis shrimp has been reported to have the world's most complex colour vision system.[8]Trilobites, which are now extinct, had unique compound eyes. They used clear calcite crystals to form the lenses of their eyes. In this, they differ from most other arthropods, which have soft eyes. The number of lenses in such an eye varied, however: some trilobites had only one, and some had thousands of lenses in one eye.

In contrast to compound eyes, simple eyes are those that have a single lens. For example, jumping spiders have a large pair of simple eyes with a narrow field of view, supported by an array of other, smaller eyes for peripheral vision. Some insect larvae, like caterpillars, have a different type of simple eye (stemmata) which gives a rough image. Some of the simplest eyes, called ocelli, can be found in animals like some of the snails, which cannot actually "see" in the normal sense. They do have photosensitive cells, but no lens and no other means of projecting an image onto these cells. They can distinguish between light and dark, but no more. This enables snails to keep out of direct sunlight. In organisms dwelling near deep-sea vents, compound eyes have been secondarily simplified and adapted to spot the infra-red light produced by the hot ventsin this way the bearers can spot hot springs and avoid being boiled alive.[9]

Photoreception is phylogenetically very old, with various theories of phylogenesis.[10] The common origin (monophyly) of all animal eyes is now widely accepted as fact. This is based upon the shared genetic features of all eyes; that is, all modern eyes, varied as they are, have their origins in a proto-eye believed to have evolved some 540 million years ago,[11][12][13] and the PAX6 gene is considered a key factor in this. The majority of the advancements in early eyes are believed to have taken only a few million years to develop, since the first predator to gain true imaging would have touched off an "arms race" [14] among all species that did not flee the photopic environment. Prey animals and competing predators alike would be at a distinct disadvantage without such capabilities and would be less likely to survive and reproduce. Hence multiple eye types and subtypes developed in parallel (except those of groups, such as the vertebrates, that were only forced into the photopic environment at a late stage).

Eyes in various animals show adaptation to their requirements. For example, the eye of a bird of prey has much greater visual acuity than a human eye, and in some cases can detect ultraviolet radiation. The different forms of eye in, for example, vertebrates and molluscs are examples of parallel evolution, despite their distant common ancestry. Phenotypic convergence of the geometry of cephalopod and most vertebrate eyes creates the impression that the vertebrate eye evolved from an imaging cephalopod eye, but this is not the case, as the reversed roles of their respective ciliary and rhabdomeric opsin classes[15] and different lens crystallins show.[16]

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Eye - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a disease of the entire joint involving the cartilage, joint lining, ligaments, and underlying bone. The breakdown of these tissues eventually leads to pain and joint stiffness. The joints most commonly affected are the knees, hips, and those in the hands and spine. The specific causes of OA are unknown, but are believed to be a result of both mechanical and molecular events in the affected joint. Disease onset is gradual and usually begins after the age of 40. There is currently no cure for OA. Treatment for OA focuses on relieving symptoms and improving function, and can include a combination of patient education, physical therapy, weight control, use of medications, and eventually total joint replacement.

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Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are stem cells derived from the undifferentiated inner mass cells of a human embryo.

Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, meaning they are able to grow (i.e. differentiate) into all derivatives of the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm.

In other words, they can develop into each of the more than 200 cell types of the adult body as long as they are specified to do so.

Embryonic stem cells are distinguished by two distinctive properties: their pluripotency, and their ability to replicate indefinitely.

ES cells are pluripotent, that is, they are able to differentiate into all derivatives of the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.

These include each of the more than 220 cell types in the adult body.

Pluripotency distinguishes embryonic stem cells from adult stem cells found in adults; while embryonic stem cells can generate all cell types in the body, adult stem cells are multipotent and can produce only a limited number of cell types.

Additionally, under defined conditions, embryonic stem cells are capable of propagating themselves indefinitely.

This allows embryonic stem cells to be employed as useful tools for both research and regenerative medicine, because they can produce limitless numbers of themselves for continued research or clinical use.

Because of their plasticity and potentially unlimited capacity for self-renewal, ES cell therapies have been proposed for regenerative medicine and tissue replacement after injury or disease.

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Featured Recipe from The Longevity Kitchen: Insanely Good Chocolate Brownies

Jumbo shrimp. Airline food. Boneless ribs. Fuzzy logic. Some words just dont seem to belong together. Im betting youd say healthy brownie falls into that category. Au contraire! How do I know that isnt the case? Because there was a lot of yumming in my kitchen as a gaggle of brownie aficionados devoured these. Refined white sugar out; Grade B maple syrup in. See ya white flour; hello almond flour and brown rice flour. Fare-thee-well butter; come-on-down olive oil! Add dark chocolate, walnuts, and cinnamon, and the result is a decadent culinary oxymoron for the ages.

Makes 16 brownies

Prep Time: 20 minutes

Cook Time: 30 minutes

You can also use a 9 by 6-inch baking pan. If you do, the baking time will be only about 25 minutes.

Cacao content is the amount of pure cacao products (chocolate liquor, cocoa butter, and cocoa powder) used in the chocolate; the higher the percentage, the more antioxidants the chocolate contains. And if youre into addition by subtraction, higher cacao percentages mean lower sugar content.

Preheat the oven to 350F. Line an 8-inch square baking pan (see note) with two pieces of foil long enough to overlap on all four sides. Lightly oil the foil.

Put the almond flour, brown rice flour, cocoa powder, cinnamon, baking soda, and salt in a bowl and stir with a whisk to combine.

Put half of the chocolate in a heatproof bowl and set the bowl over a saucepan of simmering water. Heat, stirring often, just until the chocolate is melted and smooth. Remove from the heat and whisk in the olive oil.

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Boston Medical Centers Division of Endocrinology is staffed by internationally renowned physicians in the fields of thyroid and metabolic bone disorders.

We are deeply devoted to our patients and to the evaluation, management and research of a multitude of endocrine disorders including: thyroid abnormalities, bone and calcium metabolism, disorders of growth hormone, complications of menopause, hirsutism, polycystic ovary, hypogonadism, sexual dysfunction, infertility, lipid metabolism, endocrine hypertension, adrenal and pituitary disorders.

BMCs mission is to provide exceptional care, without exception, and the Division of Endocrinology shares this mission. When you come here for evaluation and treatment of an endocrine disorder, you can rest assured that you will receive top-notch care from highly-trained, caring physicians and staff.

Our Androgen Clinical Research Unit (ACRU) at BMC in conjunction with Boston University is dedicated to conducting research that advances the understanding of the effects of testosterone administrationand various clinical outcomes.

Learn more about ourcurrent Androgen Clinical Trials on ACRU(http://www.androtrials.org) or call: 617.414.2968. They are still looking for men age 65 and older to participate.

In the following news stories, Shalender Bhasin, MD, from Endocrinology, Diabetes & Nutrition at BMC talks with WCVB TV, Channel 5, about the controversy over the use of testosterone, misconceptions and its risks. Fountain of Youth for Men?(http://www.thebostonchannel.com/health/28643374/detail.html)

Off-label Use of Testosterone Therapy on the Rise(http://www.thebostonchannel.com/health/28609897/detail.html)

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Endocrinology | Thyroid & Metabolic Bone Disorders ...

1 in 10 adults* has kidney disease. Are you the 1? Know your risk. Take the Risk Quiz

Understanding your kidneys is the first step in taking control of your health. Following a kidney-friendly diet, taking good care of diabetes, hypertension and other health conditions, and not smoking may help your kidneys function better and longer, even when you have kidney disease. Your kidneys two bean-shaped organs located in your lower back play a more important role in your overall health than you may realize. They are your bodys filtration system, cleaning wastes and extra fluids from your body and producing and balancing chemicals that are necessary for your body to function. The more you know about how kidneys work, the less you'll need to ask, "what is kidney disease?" Get the 411 on kidney disease

What is kidney disease? Well, one of the first things to know is that kidney disease comes in stages. Knowing your chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage is important for deciding your treatment. CKD has five stages, ranging from nearly normal kidney function (stage 1) to kidney failure, which requires dialysis or transplant (stage 5). Understanding your stage can help you learn how to take control and slow the progression of your condition. Discover the 5 stages of kidney disease

Get smart about two conditions that could secretly conspire against your kidneys. Diabetes and high blood pressure can work together as silent partners that cause damage to the blood vessels in the kidneys. Early detection, education, keeping blood sugar levels under control, eating healthy and exercising can put these two bad guys in their place while helping you achieve a better quality of life. Learn more about diabetes and hypertension

Could you or someone you care about have chronic kidney disease (CKD)?One in 10adults age 20 or older in the U.S. have CKD, and many others are at risk and dont even know it. Risk factors include:

If you may be at risk for kidney disease, consider scheduling a kidney screening with your primary care physician (PCP) for your next checkup. No cost screenings are offered in some areas as well. To learn more about screenings, you may want to contact The Kidney TRUST, an organization aimed at increasing awareness of kidney disease through public education and testing programs. Get started today

Finding out you have chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the earlier stages of CKD may allow you to take action to slow the progression of kidney disease and prevent kidney failure. By controlling blood pressure, and blood sugar levels for those with diabetes, and making other healthy lifestyle choices, it may be possible to keep kidneys working. Learn how you can help slow the progression of kidney disease.

Kidneys do a lot more than produce urine. These fist-sized, bean-shaped organs have a big responsibility in the body. Find out what they do and how they do their jobs.

Many medical professionals believe that diet plays a role in slowing the progression of kidney disease. Lower protein diets may help the kidneys because they wont have to work so hard. Because healthy kidneys are responsible for eliminating potassium and phosphorus, as kidney function slows, these minerals may need to be reduced in the diet. Find out what to eat when you have kidney disease.

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Kidney Aware - Kidney Disease Education - DaVita

What the Kidneys Do

You have two kidneys. They are bean-shaped and about the size of a fist. They are located in the middle of your back, on the left and right of your spine, just below your rib cage.

The kidneys filter your blood, removing wastes and extra water to make urine. They also help control blood pressure and make hormones that your body needs to stay healthy. When the kidneys are damaged, wastes can build up in the body.

Kidney function may be reduced with aging. As the kidneys age, the number of filtering units in the kidney may decrease, the overall amount of kidney tissue may decrease, and the blood vessels that supply the kidney may harden, causing the kidneys to filter blood more slowly.

If your kidneys begin to filter less well as you age, you may be more likely to have complications from certain medicines. There may be an unsafe buildup of medicines that are removed from your blood by your kidneys. Also, your kidneys may be more sensitive to certain medicines. For example, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and some antibiotics may harm your kidneys in some situations. The next time you pick up a prescription or buy an over-the-counter medicine or supplement, ask your pharmacist how the product may affect your kidneys and interact with your other medicines.

(Watch the video to learn more about what the kidneys do. To enlarge the video, click the brackets in the lower right-hand corner. To reduce the video, press the Escape (Esc) button on your keyboard.)

Learn more about how the kidneys work.

Kidney disease means the kidneys are damaged and can no longer remove wastes and extra water from the blood as they should. Kidney disease is most often caused by diabetes or high blood pressure. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, more than 20 million Americans may have kidney disease. Many more are at risk. The main risk factors for developing kidney disease are

Each kidney contains about one million tiny filtering units made up of blood vessels. These filters are called glomeruli. Diabetes and high blood pressure damage these blood vessels, so the kidneys are not able to filter the blood as well as they used to. Usually this damage happens slowly, over many years. This is called chronic kidney disease. As more and more filtering units are damaged, the kidneys eventually are unable to maintain health.

Early kidney disease usually has no symptoms, which means you will not feel different. Blood and urine tests are the only way to check for kidney damage or measure kidney function. If you have diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, or a family history of kidney failure, you should be tested for kidney disease.

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NIHSeniorHealth: Kidney Disease - What is Kidney Disease?

Learn about kidney disease and what it means to you

Most people dont give their kidneys a second thought until they start to experience a loss of kidney function. In fact many people dont experience serious health problems until their kidney function has dropped to less than twenty five percent. Since kidney damage cannot be reversed, learning all that you can, as soon as you can, may help you keep your kidneys functioning longer. Read on to learn about how healthy kidneys function, chronic kidney disease, kidney failure and coping with kidney disease.

There are two main causes of kidney disease: hypertension and diabetes.

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The National Kidney Foundation has divided chronic kidney disease into 5 stages.

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The kidneys play an important role in your health by removing wastes, extra fluids, and releasing hormones.

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Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is normally a long process where the kidneys slowly lose function over time. Find out more about the stages of CKD, causes, risk factors, and warning signs, and learn how you may be able to slow the progression of the disease.

Learn More

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What is Kidney Disease | Fresenius Medical Care

Back to TopReferences

Fogarty DG, Tall MW. A stepped are approach to the management of chronic kidney disease. In: Taal MW, Chertow GM, Marsden PA et al. eds. Brenner and Rector's The Kidney. 9th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2011:chap 61.

Tonelli M, Pannu N, Manns B. Oral phosphate binders in patients with kidney failure. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:1312-1324.

Abboud H, Henrich WL. Clinical practice. Stage IV chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:56-65.

Upadhyay A, Earley A, Haynes SM, Uhlig K. Systematic review: blood pressure target in chronic kidney disease and proteinuria as an effect modifier. Ann Intern Med . 2011;154:541-548.

KDOQI. KDOQI Clinical Practice Guideline and Clinical Practice Recommendations for anemia in chronic kidney disease: 2007 update of hemoglobin target. Am J Kidney Dis . 2007; 50:471-530.

KDOQI; National Kidney Foundation II. Clinical practice guidelines and clinical practice recommendations for anemia in chronic kidney disease in adults. Am J Kidney Dis. 2006;47(5 Suppl 3):S16-S85.

Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (K/DOQI). K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines on hypertension and antihypertensive agents in chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis . 2004; 43(5 Suppl 1):S1-S290.

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Chronic Kidney Disease - Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment of ...

Kidney disease is a general term that includes any disease, disorder or condition of the kidneys. The kidneys are vital internal organs located in the upper abdomen. Normally people have two bean-shaped kidneys, which form a part of the urinary tract in the genitourinary system.

Healthy kidneys function continuously, and the bodys total blood supply passes through the kidneys several times each minute. The healthy body can continue to function with only one good kidney, as happens when someone volunteers to be a living kidney donor.

Kidney disease is due to a variety of conditions that lead to kidney damage and deterioration of kidney function. Kidney disease can make it difficult or impossible for the kidneys to perform functions that are critical to life and your overall health including:

Filtering waste products and excess water and salts from the blood, which are then eliminated from the body through the ureters, bladder and urethra in the form of urine

Producing certain hormones, such as renin, which helps regulate blood pressure

Producing the active form of vitamin D (calcitrol)

Regulating electrolytes and other vital substances, such as sodium, calcium and potassium

Regulating the level and quality of fluid in the body

Stimulating red blood cell production

There are two general types of serious kidney disease:

Link:
Kidney Disease | Healthgrades